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§* LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.! 

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MTED STATES OP AMERICA. J 







Highek Lessons iist English. 

A WORK 

OK 

English Grammar 

AND 

COMPOSITION, 

In which the Science op the Language is made tributary 
to the akt of expression. 

A COURSE 

OF PRACTICAL LESSONS CAREFULLY GRADED, AND ADAPTED TO EVERY 
DAY USE IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 

ALONZO REED, A.M., 

Instructor in English Grammar in the Brooklyn Collegiate and 
Polytechnic Institute, 



BRAINEED^KELLOGG, A.M., 

Professor of the English Language and Literature in the Brooklyn Collegiate 
and Polytechnic Institute. 



NEW YORK: 

Clark & Maynard, Publishers, 

5 Barclay Street. 
1878. 



«$> 



COFTRIGHT, 1877, 
BT 

Alonzo Reed aud Buaixekd Kellogg. 



Press of J. J. Little & Co., 
Nos. 10 to 20 Astor 1 lace, New York. 



Pre fa c e. 



Every one appreciates the value of a correct use of language, and 
yet the footing of grammar — the only study in our schools that aims 
to teach this — is very insecure. Children are not enthusiastic in 
praise of grammar, most parents recall without pleasure their own 
trials with it, and many men of culture and of wisdom openly advise 
its banishment from the school-room. 

But two causes can he assigned for this wide-spread aversion to 
grammar. There must prevail a belief either that there is another 
and a better way to correct expression than that along which gram- 
mar conducts one, or that the difficulties in this, the only path to it, 
are so serious that few ever surmount them and reach the desired 
goal. 

There is, we believe, no other and better way to correct writing and 
speaking ; turning a child loose into the fields of literature will not, 
we are sure, put his feet upon such a road. De Quincey says that 
through a circuit of prodigious reading he has met with only two or 
three - writers who did not sometimes violate the accidence or the 
syntax of English grammar, and any one knows that ordinary writers 
trip on almost every page. But were literature better, in this regard, 



4 Preface. 

than it is, and were the influences surrounding the child, when 
among his mates in the street and on the play-ground, and even when 
within the circle of his home, less untoward than they are ; how is it 
possible that a mind not yet by special training made sensitive to 
good usage, taught to discriminate, educated to choose and to reject — 
how is it possible, we ask, that such a mind should be open to the 
good and closed to the bad — receptive of the one and impervious to 
the other ? Is it not enough to expect that the seed will take root 
and grow, after it has been well harrowed into soil that has been 
made mellow by the plough ? 

But literature almost valueless, as grammatical discipline, to the 
child before such training, is invaluable to him after it. It continues 
the work which grammar has started him in, confirms him in all the 
good habits he has begun, and carries him up beyond the groundwork 
of simple correctness to the graces and felicities of expression. 

We are constrained, however, to think that this general aversion to 
grammar arises, not from a belief that there is within reach some 
substitute for it, but from the manner in which its principles and 
facts are presented by text-books and by teachers. These dry facts 
are taught as something to be learned by the pupil, to be stored away 
in the memory, and to be drawn out and used only or mainly in 
parsing. It scarcely dawns upon him that all this knowledge can bo 
made helpful to him in his speech, even regulative of it, and can 
appear in its proper essence and power when by tongue or by pen ho 
attempts to incarnate his thought in language. 

We do not say that grammar, as still so generally taught, does no 
good — we say only that it fails of the highest, the main good possible 



Preface. 5 

to it. Undoubtedly it has disciplinary value, and it may introduce 
maturer pupils to the philosophy of language ; hut this one thing 
seems clear : the worth of grammar as mental gymnastics or as 
linguistic philosophy or as both cannot and will not much longer 
justify for the study a place in our common and our graded schools — 
it must bear on its branches more obvious and more serviceable fruit, 
or the tree will be hewn down and cast out of the way. 

It is to meet this imperative need of pupils and of teachers that the 
authors of "Graded Lessons in English" have prepared the "Higher 



The aim of this work is to make the Science of the Language, of 
which all the essentials are thoroughly presented, tributary to the 
Art of Expression. Every principle unfolded in the "Hints," and 
every idiom, common construction, and form, learned by the pupil in 
the analysis and parsing of the wide range of sentences given, is fixed 
in memory and, above all, in practice by varied and exhaustive drill 
in composition. The pupil is constantly stimulated to the attrac- 
tive labor of composing sentences, arranging and rearranging their 
parts, contracting, expanding, punctuating, and criticising them — the 
analysis furnishing him materials for the synthesis, and the synthesis 
supplementing the analysis. Even if the study of grammar were 
only to lodge in the memory the facts and principles of the language, 
we contend that this could be done only by work in composition — this, 
and this only, can make them permanent possessions. Pupils taught 
in this way become, as we have ourselves seen, almost dangerous to 
the peace of the class-room, so ready are they to criticise each other's 
speech and even that of the teacher. 



6 Preface. 

The first half of the book is devoted to " The Sentence and the 
Parts of Speech;" the next thirty pages to "Parts of Speech Sub- 
divided ; " the next seventy to " Modifications of the Parts of Speech ; " 
and the remaining thirty to " Composition." 

We start with the sentence, because the whole can be more easily 
understood than the parts, because words can be classified only from 
their function in the sentence, and because the pupil should, from the 
outset, see that that which determines the words in the sentence and 
the sentence itself is the thought expressed. Rules for Punctua- 
tion are given where they are needed, since the marks are as much 
a part of the sentence as are the words themselves — the sentence is 
not written till it is punctuated. 

The large space allotted to " The Sentence and the Parts of Speech" 
is necessary, because (1) the offices and relations of the several classes 
of words are many and diverse, and inflections cannot be understood 
till, by analysis and synthesis, these are mastered ; (2) because 
Arrangement must be studied, and the relations of clauses in the 
complex and the compound sentence must be understood in order 
to compose well ; and (3) because, in reading, the pupil cannot 
express the subordination of the dependent clause to the independent, 
and the co-ordination of independent clauses, till he can detect such 
clauses at a glance. 

Errors in construction are fully exposed in " Parts of Speech Sub- 
divided" and in "Modifications of the Parts of Speech," and in 
the latter division inflectional forms are thoroughly treated. 

In "Composition" the pupil is thoroughly drilled in the use of all 



Preface. y 

marks of Punctuation, is made familiar with the cardinal virtues of 
Style, and is led on to the grouping of sentences into Paragraphs 
and Paragraphs into Themes, to the construction of Frameworks 
for Themes, and to Letter- Writing. 

Many years of experience in teaching grammar both with and with- 
out Diagrams * that picture to the eye the several relations of words, 
phrases, and clauses in the sentence have convinced us pf their great 
value. But while believing that no teacher or pupil, once familiar 
with them, will willingly part with their aid, we wish to say that they 
form no vital part of the work. They could be stripped from the 
pages, and the work remain intact. 

The sentences given for analysis are largely gleaned from authors ; 
but they will not always be recognized. To suit them to the special 
purpose in hand, many of them had to be changed, and, when 
changed, they could not be quoted ; so it seemed best to us to give 
authors' names only in particular Lessons headed "Miscellaneous 
Exercises in Keview." 

We have preferred to make no departures from the ordinary classi- 
fication and nomenclature, unless what seemed to us to be some gross 
error was to be avoided, or some practical good was to accrue to the 
pupil. Nor, while shunning no difficulties that lay in our path, 
have we turned out of our path to encounter any. The book was 
not written to air crotchets or to resolve grammatical puzzles, but 
for every day use in the school -room. 



*The Diagrams in "Higher Lessons " were drawn by Masters F. J. Berlenbach 
and C. S. Francis, pupils in the Polytechnic Institute. 



8 Preface. 

"Higher Lessons in English," on its way through the press, has 
been criticised by the distinguished philologist, Prof. Francis A. March, 
and to him we are indebted for many most valuable suggestions. 

Polytechnic Institute. 
July 1, 1877 



A 

Abbreviations 

Adjective, The 

" Classes . 



Clauses 

" Composition... 

Composition 

Construction 

Modification— Compar- 



Adverb, The 

" Classes 

" Clauses 

" " Composition 

" Composition 

" Construction 

" Modification — Compari- 
son ^.. 

Alphabet, The 

Analysis 

Antecedent 

Apostrophe, Rules 

As 59,102, 133, 153, 

Brackets, Rules 

But 



Capital Letters, Rules. . 



Clauses, Kinds. 

Colon, Rules 

Comma, Rules . 



24, 45, 
.95, 118, 



PAGES. 

140 
25,26 
29,30 

139, 140 
95-98 
98-100 
31,32 

140-143 

193-199 
32-34 
144, 145 
100-106 
106-109 
34,35 
146-148 

195, 196 

15 

17 

133 

241 

154, 155 

241 

161, 162 

18,23, 

116, 237 

122, 123 



59, 



Complements . . 



38, 43, 

, 106, 114, 120, 237, 238 



Attribute 

Composition.. 

Modified 

Object 

Objective 



50 

52-54 

56,57 

50 

50 

54,55 



PAGES. 

Composition 237-264 

Conjunction, The 41-43 

Classes 152, 153 

Connected Terms, Composition.. 44-46 

Connectives, Classes 153, 154 

" Composition 154, 155 

" Construction : . 158-160 



Consonants '.. 

Copula 

Dash, Rules 

Diagram, The 

Exclamation Point, Rule. . 

Grammar, English 

Hyphen, Rules 

If-- 



15, 16 

51 

240 

18 

45 

12 

241 

.105,154, 155 
Independent Words and Phrases. 75, 76 

Infinitives 69-74 

" Composition 74, 75 

" Expansion 124, 125 

Interjection, The 41-43 

Interrogation Point 78 

It 72 

It is me, etc 191 

Language, Natural and Word 11, 12 

Lest 154, 155 

Letter- Writing 259-264 

Like 79 

Many a 101 

Marks of Parenthesis, Rule 241 

Miscellaneous Errors 147, 160, 

161, 102, 193, 198, 199 
Miscellaneous Exercises in Re- 
view 47, 48, 79-81, 125, 126 

Mne, thine, etc 188, 189 

Modifications 165 

Modifier, A 29 

Noun, The 21, 22 



IO 



Index. 



PAGES. 

Noun, Classes 131, 183 

" Clauses 110-113 

" " Composition 114-117 

" Declension 188 

Nouns as Modifiers 57, 58, 59, 61, 62 

Nouns and Pronouns, Modifica- 
tions—Case 178, 179, 181-188 

Nouns and Pronouns, Modifica- 
tions— Gender 174-178 

Nouns and Pronouns, Modifica- 
tions—Number 166-174 

Nouns and Pronouns, Modifica- 
tions—Person 179-181 

Object, The 143, 145 

Only 146 

Order, Natural 83, 84 

" Transposed 84-91 

Paragraph, The 250-255 

Parsing 28, 183 

" Written, Models 48, 184, 

196, 220, 221 

Participles 64-68 

" Composition 68, 69 

" Expansion 124 

Period, Rules 18, 23, 237 

Phrases 36, 37 

Absolute 68,76 

" Expansion 124 

" Prepositional 36-38, 70-73 

" " Composition. 39^11 

Predicate, The 13, 17, 19 

" Compound 41-43 

" Modified or Logical. . . 33 

Preposition, The 37, 38, 148, 149 

Construction 150-152 

Pronoun, The 21,22 

Case-Forms 190-193 

Classes 131-134 

" Construction 134-139 

" Declension 188-190 

Person, Number, and Gender- 
Agreement 227-230 

Questions, Direct and Indirect... 116, 117 



PAGES. 

1 Quotation Marks, Rules 116,241 

Review, Capital Letters and Punc- 
tuation 46, 47. 237-242 

Review Questions 20, 35, 36, 49. 50, 62, 

63,81,82,93,94, 187 180, 
162-164,280,231,282,281 

Semicolon, Rules 120, 239 

j Sentence, The 12, 13, 17 

Sentences, Classes 78, 1 18 

" Complex 95-117 

" Compound 117-123 

" Contraction 91-93 

Since 153, 154, 156 

Spelling, Rules 194 

Style, Qualities 243-249 

Subject, The 13, 17 

Compound 41-43 

" Modified or Logical 29, 30 

That 59. 102, 

111, 13(>, 137, 154,156, 161,188 

The 140, ill 

There 76 

Theme, The 251-256 

Theme-Writing 256-259 

Thought, A 13 

To with the Infinitive 69, 21-2, 213 

Verb, The 

" Classes 143. 141. 115 

" Conjugation 206-818 

" Modifications— Mode 2u3, 204 

" " —Mode and 

Tense Forms 218-226 

Verb. Modifications— Number and 

Person 203, 204, 

Verb, Modifications— Tense 908, 801 

" —Voice 

Voice. The 14,15 

Vowels 15 

What 97, 133, 161, 181 

When, where, and while 96, 186, 187 

Will and would, shall and should. . 22E 
Ytd and Ac 1 14 



A TALK ON LANGUAGE. 

We wish to talk with, you to-day about a language that we never 
learned from a grammar or a book of any kind. Nor was it ever 
taught us by parent or by teacher. We came by it naturally and use 
it without thinking of it. 

It is a universal language, and so needs no interpreter. People of 
all lands and all degrees of culture use it ; even the brute animals in 
some measure understand it. 

This Natural language is the language of cries, laughter, and 
tones ; the language of the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the whole face ; 
the language of gestures by the hand, and postures by the body. 

The child's cry tells of its wants ; its sob, of grief ; its scream, of 
pain ; its laugh, of delight. The boy raises his eyebrows in surprise 
and his nose in disgust, leans forward in expectation, draws back in 
fear, doubles his hand into a fist in anger, hisses in contempt, and 
calls his dog to him or drives him away by the tone in which he 
speaks to him. 

But feelings and desires are not the on]y things we wish to com- 
municate. Early in life we begin to acquire knowledge and learn to 
think, and then we feel the need of a better language. 

Suppose, for instance, you have formed a mental picture, or idea, of 
a day ; could you express this by a tone, a look, or a gesture ? 

If you wish to tell me the fact that yesterday icas cloudy, or the 
truth that the days are shorter in winter than in summer, you would 
find it wholly impossible to do this by means of Natural language. 

To communicate, then, your thoughts, or even the mental pictures 
we have called ideas, you need a language more nearly perfect. 

This language is made up of words. 

These words you learn one by one. You learn them from your 
II 



12 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

mothers, and so Word language is your mother -tongue. You learn 
them from your friends and teachers, your playmates and companions, 
and you learn them by reading ; for words, as you know, may be 
written as well as spoken. 

This Word language we may, from its superiority, call Language 
Propei'. 

Natural language, as was said, precedes this Word language, but 
gives way as Word language comes in and takes its place; yet it may 
be used, and always should be, to assist and strengthen the latter. 
In earnest conversation we enforce what we say in words, by the tone 
in which we utter them, by the varying expression of the face, and 
often by the gestures of the hand. 

The look or the gesture may even dart ahead of the word, or it 
may contradict it, and so convict the speaker of ignorance or de- 
ception. 

The happy union of the two kinds of language is the charm of all 
fine reading and speaking. The teacher of elocution is ever trying 
to recall the pupil to the tones, the facial expressions, and the action, 
so natural to him in childhood and in animated conversation. 

Qtiestions on the Talk.— Row did we come by Natural language? How does 
it differ from other languages? Why is it a universal language'.' When do we 006 
it? What is it made up of? How does the child employ it ? What is Word lan- 
guage, or Language Proper, used for ? How do we learn it ? What retires before it ? 
How can Natural language aid it ? What is an idea ? What two kinds of words are 
there ? Give a definition of Language Proper. Define English grammar. 

DEFINITION.— Language Proper consists of the spoken and 
written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts. 

DEFINITION. — English Grammar is the science which 
teaches the forms, uses, and relations of the words ot the English 
language. 

LESSOR %. 

A TALK ON THOUGHTS AND SENTENCES. 

To express a thought we use more than a single word, and the 
words arranged to express a thought we call a sentence. 

But there was a time when, through lack of words, you compressed 



A Talk on Thoughts and Sentences. 13 

your thought into a single word. The child says to his father, up, 
meaning, take me up into your lap ; or, book, meaning, this thing in my 
hand is a book. 

These first words always deal with the things that can be learned 
by the senses ; they express the child's ideas of these things. 

We have spoken of thoughts and sentences ; let us see now if we 
can find out just what a thought is, and what a sentence is. 

As a sentence is a group of words expressing a thought, — the body, 
of which the thought is the soul, — and so is something which we can 
hear or see, while a thought is not, let us try to find out what a 
thought is by looking at a sentence. 

In any such sentence as this, Spiders spin, something is said or 
asserted about something. Here it is said or asserted of the insects, 
spiders, that they spin. 

The sentence, then, consists of two parts, — the name of that of 
which something is said, and that which is said of it. 

The first of these parts we call the Subject of the sentence ; the 
second, the Predicate. 

Now, if the sentence, composed of two parts, expresses the thought, 
there must be in the thought two parts to be expressed. And there 
are two ; viz., something of which we think, and that which we 
think about it. In the thought expressed a moment ago, the insects, 
spiders, are the something of which we think, and their spinning is 
what we think or judge of them. In the sentence expressing this 
thought, the word spiders names that of which we think, and the 
word spin tells what we think or judge of them. 

Not every group of words is necessarily a sentence, because it may 
not be the expression of a thought. Spiders spinning is not a sentence. 
Neither of the two ideas for which the words stand is thought of 
the other or asserted of it. 

8°fi feathers, The shining sun, are not sentences, and for the same 
reason. Feathers are soft, The sun shines, are sentences. Here the 
asserting word is supplied, and eomething is said of something else. 

The shines sun is not a sentence, for, though it contains the assert- 
ing word shines, the arrangement is such that no assertion is made, 
and so no thought is expressed. 

Questions on the Talk. —What do we use words for ? How are our first 
thoughts expressed ? What do our first words express ? What is a sentence ? 



14 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

What is it made up of ? What is each part called ? Of what two parts is a thought 
composed ? Why is spiders spinning not a sentence ? Why is the shining sun not a 
sentence ? Convert the shining sun into a sentence. Why is the shines sun not a 
sentence ? 



LESSOR 3. 

A TALK ON SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 

We have already told you that in expressing our ideas and thoughts 
we use two kinds of words, spoken words and written words. 

We learned the spoken words first. Mankind spoke long before 
they wrote. Not until people wished to communicate with those at a 
distance, or had thought out something worth handing down to after- 
times, did they need to write. 

But speaking was easy. The air, the lungs, and the organs of the 
throat and mouth were at hand. The first cry was a suggestion. 
Sounds and noises were heard on every side, provoking imitation, and 
the need of speech, for the purposes of communication, was impera- 
tive. 

Spoken words are made up of sounds. There are about forty sounds 
in the English language. The different combinations of these give 
us all the words of our spoken tongue. That you may clearly under- 
stand these sounds, we will tell you something about the human 
voice. 

In talking, the air driven out from your lungs beats against two flat 
muscles, stretched, like bands, across the top of the windpipe, and 
causes them to vibrate up and down. This vibration makes sound. 
Take a thread, put one end between your teeth, hold the other with 
thumb and finger, draw it tight and strike it, and you will understand 
how voice is made. The shorter the string or the tighter it is drawn, 
the faster will it vibrate and the higher will be the pitch of the sound. 
The more violent the blow, the farther will the string vibrate and the 
louder will be the sound. Just so with these vocal bands or cords. 
The varying force with which the breath strikes them, and their differ- 



A Talk on Sounds and Letters. 15 

ent tensions and lengths at different times, explain the different 
degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of the voice. 

If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well 
open, a class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds. 

But if the voice is held back or obstructed by the palate, tongue, 
teeth, or lips, one kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made. 
If the breath is driven out without voice, and is held bach by these 
same parts of the mouth, the other kind of consonant sounds is 
formed. 

The written word is made up of characters, or letters, which repre- 
sent to the eye these sounds that address the ear. 

You are now prepared to understand us when we say that the 
voivels are the letters that stand for the open sounds of the 
voice, and that the consonants are the letters that stand for 
the sounds made by the obstructed voice and the obstructed 
breath. 

The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A 
perfect alphabet would have one letter for each sound, and only one. 

Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways : — 

1. Some of the letters are superfluous ; c stands for the sound of s 
or of k, as in city and can ; q has the sound of h, as in quit ; and x 
that of 7cs, gz, or z, as in expel, exist, and Xenophon. 

2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds ; as, th 
in thine, th in thin, ng in sing, and sh in shut. 

3. Some letters stand each for many sounds. Twenty-three letters 
represent over forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single duty ; 
e stands for two sounds, as in mete and met ; i for two, as in pine and 
pin; for three, as in note, not, and move; u for four, as in 
tube, tub, full, and fur ; a for six, as in fate, fat, far, fall, fast, and 
fare. 

W is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a 
vowel sound, and so is y when it has the sound of i, as in now, by, boy, 



The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same 
vowel are caused by tbe different shapes which the mouth assumes. 
These changes in its cavity produce, also, the two sounds that 
unite in each of the compounds, ou, oi, ew, and in the alphabetic i 
and 0. 



1 6 The Sentence and the Parts of SpeeeJi. 



1 

Vocal Consonan 
b 


is. 


2 

Aspirates. 
p 


d 




t 






k 


h 


i ch. 



1 
al Consonants. 


2 

A ^pirates. 


th 


th 


(in tliine) 
v 


(in thin) 
f 






z (in zone).. 




z (in azure). 


sh 



The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the 
obstructed voice; those in column 2, except h (which is simple though 
strong breathing), represent those made by the obstructed brutl/i. 

The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, 
lips, and palate are placed in the same relative position to make the 
sounds of both letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of 
the letters of any pair is simply this : there is voice in the sounds of 
the letters in column 1, and only whisper in those of column 2. Give 
the sound of any letter in column 1, as b, g, v, and the last or vanish- 
ing part of it is the sound of the other letter of the pair. 

Let the teacher write these letters on the hoard, as above, and drill the pupils on their 
sounds till they can see and make these distinctions. Exercise them on the vowels 
also. 

Questions on the Talk.— Which precedes, speaking or writing? When did 
people need to write ? What do we use in speaking ? Of what are spoken words 
composed ? How many sounds are there in our language ? How is voice made ? 
Give the illustrations. On what do pitch and loudness depend ': What are \owel 
sounds ? What are consonant sounds ? What are the two kinds of consonant 
sounds ? What are letters ? What are vowels ? What are consonants ? What b a 
perfect alphabet ? How is ours imperfect ? What are the three useless letters, and 
for what do they stand ? What combinations of letters stand for single sounds ? 
Make the sounds of the vowels. When are w and y vowels ? What dors changing 
the cavity of the mouth do to the sound ? In making the vowel sound- note these 
changes. In sounding on, of, etc., how does the month change ? What are the tet- 
ters in column 1 called ? In column 2 ? In what respect do the Bound* of the letters 
paired resemble each other ? How do they differ f Make all these sounds by them- 
selves. What are the four things that we wish you to distinguish ? Illustrate. 

In closing this last formal talk with you, we wish to emphasize one 
point brought before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing ; we carry 



Analysis and the Diagram. ly 



in memory a picture of the pencil, which we call an idea ; and there 
are the two loords naming this idea, the spoken and the written. Learn 
to distinguish clearly these four things. 



LESS©! 4. 

ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM. 
DEFINITION.— A Sentence is the expression of a thought in 
words. 

Direction.— Let tlie pupils be exercised on these sentences : — 

Model. —Spiders spin. Why is this a sentence? Ans.— Because it expresses a 
thought. Of what is something thought ? Ans.—* Spiders. Which word tells what 
is thought ? Ans.—* Spin. 

1. Tides ebb. 4. Carbon burns. 7. Leaves tremble. 

2. Liquids flow. 5. Iron melts. 8. "Worms crawl. 

3. Steam expands. 6. Powder explodes. 9. Hares leap. 

You see that in these sentences there are two parts. The 
parts, as you have learned, are the Subject and the Predi- 
cate, 

DEFINITION.— The Subject of a sentence names that of which 
something is thought. 

DEFINITION.— The Predicate of a sentence tells what is 
thought, 

DEFINITION. — The Analysis of a sentence is the separation 
of it into its parts. 

Direction. — Analyze these sentences : — 

Model.— Beavers build. This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. Beavers 
is the subject, because it names that of which something is thought ; build is the 
predicate, because it tells what is thought. 

1. Squirrels climb. 4. Heralds proclaim. 7. Corn ripens. 

2. Blood circulates. 5. Apes chatter. 8. Birds twitter. 

3. Muscles tire. 6. Branches wave. 9. Hearts throb. 

* Spiders, standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing • spin, used merely 
as a word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and pupil will please note. 



18 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Direction.— Draw a heavy line and divide it thus :— 
1 



Let the first part represent the subject of a sentence ; the second, the pn 

If you write a word over the first part, you will understand that it is the tutfcd Of 

a sentence. If you write a word over the second part, you will understand that it is 
the predicate of a sentence. 

Love , covgvsrs 

You see, hy looking at this expression, that Love conquers is a sentence ; that 
Love is the subject, and conquers the prtdicale. 

These figures, made up of straight lines, we call Diagrams. 
DEFINITION. —A Diagram is a picture of the offices and rela- 
tions of the different parts of a sentence. 

Direction.— Analyze and diagram these sentences : — 

1. Frogs croak. 5. Flies buzz. 9. Books aid. 

2. Hens sit. 6. Sap ascends. 10. Noise disturbs. 

3. Sheep bleat. 7. Study pays. 11. Hope strengthens. 

4. Cows low. 8. Blossoms swell. 12. Cocks crow. 



LESSOR 5. 



COMPOSITION— SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

To the Teacher.— Let some of the pupils write their sentences on the board 
While others are reading theirs. Then let the work on the board be cm l 
Correct any expression that does not make good sense, or that asserts something 

not strictly true ; for the pupil should early be taught to tliink accurately, as well 
as to write and speak grammatically. 

Correct all mi-takes in spelling, and in the use of capital Utter* and the period. 
Insist on neatness. 

Collect the papers before the recitation closes. 

CAPITAL LETTER-RULE — The first word of every sentence 
must begin with a capital letter. 

PERIOD— RULE.— A period must be placed after every sen- 
tence which simply affirms, denies, or commands* 

Direction.- Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the following 
predicate- : — 



Analysis. 



19 



Ask yourselves the questions, 


What tarnishes ? 


Who sailed, conquered, etc. ? 


1. tarnishes. 6. 


sailed. 


11. 


conquered. 


2. capsize. 7. 


descends. 


12. 


surrendered. 


3. radiates. 8. 


glisten. 


13. 


refines. 


4. sentence. 9. 


absorb. 


14. 


gurgle. 


5. careen. 10. 


corrode. 


. 15. 


murmur. 



Direction.— Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the follow- 
ing subjects : — 
Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what ? 



1. Glycerine — 

2. Yankees 

3. Tyrants 

4. Pendulums - 

5. Caesar . 

C. Labor . 

7. Chalk . 

8. Nature . 



9. Tempests 

10. Seeds . 

11. Heat . 

12. Philosophers - 

13. Bubbles . 

14. Darkness 

15. Wax . 

16. Reptiles . 



17. Merchants - 

18. Meteors 

19. Conscience - 
, 20. Congress — 

21. Life . 

22. Vapors 

23. Music . 

24. Pitch . 



To the Teacher. — This exercise may profitably be extended by supplying several 
subjects to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject. 



ANALYSIS. 
The predicate sometimes contains more than one word. 

Direction.— Analyze and diagram as in Lesson 4. 



11. Nuisances should be abated. 

12. Jerusalem was destroyed. 

13. Light can be reflected. 

14. Rain must have fallen. 

15. Planets have been discovered. 

16. Palaces shall crumble. 

17. Storms may be gathering. 

8. Constantinople had been cap- 18. Essex might have been saved. 

tured. 19. Caesar could have been crowned. 

9. Electricity has been harnessed. 20. Inventors may be encour- 
10. Tempests have been raging. aged. 



1. Moisture is exhaled. 

2. Conclusions are drawn. 
8. Industry will enrich. 

4. Stars have disappeared. 

5. Twilight is falling. 

6. Leaves are turning. 

7. Sirius has appeared. 



20 The Sentence and tJie Parts of Speech. 

Direction.— Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 
12 and 17. 

Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting who or what before this 
predicate, the subject may easily be found. 

To the Teacher. — Let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily 
point out the subject and the predicate in any simple declarative sentence. 

"When this can be done promptly, the first and most important step in analysis will 
have been taken. 



LESSOR 7. 



COMPOSITION— SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

Direction.— See how many good seutences you can make out of the words in the 
three columns following :— 

The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 3 to make 
complete predicates. Analyze your sentences. 



1 


2 


3 


Arts 


is 


progressing. 


Allen 


was 


tested. 


Life 


are 


command. 


Theories 


will 


prolonged. 


Science 


would 


released. 


Truth 


were 


falling. 


Shadows 


may be 


burned. 


Moscow 


has been 


measured. 


Raleigh 


have been 


prevail. 


Quantity 


should have been 


lost. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 
What is a sentence? What are its two parts ? What is the subject 
of a sentence ? The predicate of a sentence ? The analysis of a sen- 
tence ? What is a diagram? What rule has been given for the use 
of capital letters ? For the period ? May the predicate contain more 
than one word ? 

To the Teacher.— Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of 
this recitation. See Hints for Oral Instruction, below. Tbe matter contained in the 
" Hints " should always be given to the class as a preparation for the next day's 
work. 



Classes of Words. 



CLASSES OF WORDS. 
Nouns. 

Mints for Oral Instruction. — We have now reached, the point where we 
must take up the words of our language and classify them. But we are appalled by 
their number. If we have got to learn all about the forms and uses of one hundred 
thousand words by studying them one by one, we shall die ignorant of English 
grammar. 

But may we not deal with words as we do with plants ? If you had to study and 
name each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, you would never master the botany 
even of your garden plat. 

But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ from one another, 
and he has given us the power to detect resemblances and differences and to group 
and sort things according as they are like or unlike one another. 

From certain likenesses in form and structure, we put certain flowers together and 
call them roses ; from other likenesses, we get another class called lilies ; from others 
still, violets. 

Just so we classify trees, and get the oak, the elm, the maple, etc. 

The myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes. Studying each 
ciass, we learn all we need to know of every object in it. 

From their likenesses, though not in form, we classify words. "We group them 
according to their similarities in use or office in the sentence. Sorting them thus, we 
find that they all fall into eight classes, which we call Parts of Speech. 

We find that many words name things— are the names of things of which we can 
think and speak. These we place in one class and call them Nouns (Lat. nomen, 
a name). 

Pkonouns. 

How stiff and awkward is this sentence : Mr. (or Miss) A wants George B 

or Mary C to call at Mr. (or Miss) A \s house after school. 

How smooth this substitute for it : /want you to call at my house after school. 

Without the little words which we shall underscore, how all but impossible for one 
stranger to ask another, " Can you tell me whois the postmaster at B ? " One stranger 
would not know what name to use instead of you, and the other would not recognize 
the name in the place of me, and both would be bothered to find a substitute for who. 

I, you, my, me, what, we, it, he, ivho, him, she, them, and others, are used in place 
of, or for, nouns, and are, therefore, called Pronouns (Lat. pro, for, and nomen, a 
noun), and form the third part of speech. 

By means of these handy little words we can represent any or every object in 
existence. We could hardly speak or write without them now, they so frequently 
shorten the expression and prevent confusion and repetition. 



22 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Questions on the Hints.— Iloiu must we study words? What do we mean by 
resemblances in things? What by differences? What is the basis of nil classification f 
Why wn we put together certain flower* and call them roses t What differences in 
form, bark, wood, leaf, and seed hare the oak and the pine? Why are they not the 
same kind of tree ? Why are not the dog and the cat the same kind of animal .' Ac- 
cording to what do we classify words? How many classes are there? We call them 
what? What use or office have nouns? "JVoun" means what? Give some names 
of persons ; of beasts ; of lifeless things ; of actions ; of qualities of things; of multi- 
tudes of ptr sons or mere animals or mere things ; of things that you cannot see or 
touch, but can only think of What does "pronoun" mean? What are pronoutis? 
Mention some of them. Why do we use them? Name, if you can, something that no 
pronoun will represent. Give a pronoun that will stand for all the objects in the world 
taken together. 



DEFINITION.— A Xoun is the name of anything. 
DEFINITION.— A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

The principal office of nouns is to name things of which 
we say or assert something in the sentence. 

Direction.— Write, according to the model, the names of things that can tern, 
grow, melt, love, roar, or revolve. 

Nouns. 
Wood 
Paper 
Gas 

Ilouses , . 

Model.— Coal 1- burn or burns. 

Leaves 
Flesh 
Clothes J 

Wood burns, Leaves burn, etc., are sentences, and the 
nouns ivood, leaves, etc., are the subjects. 

Every subject of a sentence is a noun, or some word or 
words used as a noun. But not every noun in a sentence is 
a subject. 

Direction.— Select and write all the nouns and pronouns, whether subjects or not, 
in the sentences given in Lesson 18. 

In writing them observe the following rules :— 



Capital Letters. 23 



CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— Proper or individual names 
and words derived from them begin with capital letters. 

PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— Abbreviations 
generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the 
period. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Direction.— From the following words select and write in one column those 
names that distinguish individual things from others of the same class, and in 
another column the words derived from these names. Observe Rule 1, Lesson 8. 

ohio, state, Chicago, france, "bostonian, country, england, boston, 
milton, river, girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miltonic, city, 
englishman, messiah, platonic, american, deity, bible, book, plato, 
christian, broadway, america, jehovah, christ, british, easter, europe, 
man, scriptures, god. 

Direction.— Write in one column the names of the days of the week and the 
months of the year, beginning each with a capital letter; and in another column the 
names of the seasons, without capital letters. 

Memember that some individual names are made up of a 
*class name and a distinguishing word. The distinguish- 
ing word always begins with a capital letter. If this word 
alone cannot clearly designate the object, the class name also 
begins with a capital letter, but not otherwise. 

Examples.— Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Milky Way, Jersey City, 
Suspension Bridge, Pacific ocean, New York city, Harper's Ferry, Cape May, Bun- 
ker Hill, Hudson river, Red River, Queens county, Lake Erie, General Jacksou, 
White Mountains, river Thames, Astor House, steamer Drew, North Pole. 

* Bead Sea is composed of the class name sea, which applies to all seas, and the 
word Dead, which distinguishes one sea from all others. 

Many writers would begin city, river, county, ocean, etc., in the examples given, 
with capital letters ; but we think the best usage supports the position taken above. 
There is going on a slow but steady desertion from the ranks of capital letters. 
About a century ago every noun began with a capital letter. 



24 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Direction. — Write these: words, using capital letters when needed: — 
ohio river, professor huxley, president adams, doctor brown, arctic 
circle, clinton county, westchester county, torrid zone, colonel burr, 
secretary stanton, lake george, green mountains, white sea, cape cod, 
delaware bay, atlantic ocean, united states, rliode island. 

Hem ember that, when the distinguishing word preceded 
by of follows the class name, and cannot alone clearly des- 
ignate the object, the class name also begins with a capital 
letter ; as, Bay of Biscay. Otherwise, the class name be- 
gins with a small letter ; as, state of Xew York. 

Direction.— Write these words, using capital letters when needed :— 
city of london, isle of man, straits of dover, state of Vermont, isth- 
mus of darien, gulf of mexico, queen of england, bay of naples, 
empire of china. 

Remember that, when a compound name is made up of 
two or more distinguishing words, as Henry Clay, John 
Stuart Mill, each word begins with a capital letter. 

Direction.— Write these words, using capital letters when needed : — 
great britain, lower California, new york, daniel webster, new eng- 
land, oliver wendell holmes, north america, new Orleans, james rus- 
sell lowell, british america. 

Hemember that, in writing the titles of book*, essays, 
poems, plays, etc., and the names of the Deity, only the 
chief w r ords begin with capital letters ; as, Decline and Fall 
of the Roman Empire, Supreme Being, Paradise Lost, the 
Holy One of Israel. 

Direction.— Write those words, nsing capital letters when needed:— 

declaration of independence, clarendon's history of the great rebel- 
lion, Webster's reply to hayne, pilgrim's progress, lives of the poets, 
son of man, the most high, dombey and son, tent on the beach, ban- 
croft's history of the united states. 

Direction.— Write these miscellaneous names, using capital letters when 
needed :— 

erie canal, governor tilden, napoleon bonaparte, cape of g<><><l hope, 
essay on criticism, massachusetts bay, city of boston, continent of 



A bbreviations. 



america, new testament, she stoops to conquer, hymn on the nativity, 
indian ocean, cape cod bay, plymouth rock, anderson's history of the 
united states, mount Washington, english channel, the holy spirit, 
new york central railroad, old world, long island sound. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 

Direction.— Some words occur frequently, and for convenience are abbreviated 
in writing. Observing Rule 2, Lesson 8, abbreviate these words by writing the first 
five letters : — 

Thursday and lieutenant. 

These by writing the first four letters : — 

Connecticut, captain, Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, 
Mississippi, Pennsylvania, professor, president, Tennessee, and Tues- 
day. 

These by writing the first three letters : — 

Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Colorado, Dela- 
ware, England, esquire, Friday, general, George, governor, honorable, 
Illinois, Kansas, major, Monday, Nebraska, Nevada, reverend, Satur- 
day, secretary, Sunday, Texas, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and the names 
of the months except May and June. 

These by writing the first two letters :— 

Company, county, credit, example, idem (the same), Iowa, and 
Oregon. 

These by writing the first letter : — 

East, north, Ohio, south, and west. 

These by writing the first and the last letter :— 

Doctor, debtor, Georgia, Indiana, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, 
Maine, Maryland, Master, Mister, numero (number), saint, street, 
Vermont, and Virginia. 



26 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with a period after 
each :— 

Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts\ anno Domini (in the year 
of our Lord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (be- 
fore noon), before Christ, collect on delivery, District (of) Columbia, 
divinitatis doctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medi- 
cinse doctor (doctor of medicine), member (of) Parliament, North 
America, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, 
post master, post meridiem (afternoon), post office, Rhode Island, 
South Carolina, and United States. 

Direction. — The abbreviations in column 1 are irregular in the choice of 
letters ; and those in column 2, in not beginning with capital letters. These and 
those you have made must be committed to memory. 



Acct, 


account. 


bu., 


bushel. 


Bbl., 


barrel. 


do., 


ditto (the same). 


Chas. , 


Charles. 


doz., 


dozen. [pie). 


LL. D., 


legum doctor 


e-g., 


exempli gratia (for exam- 




(doctor of laws). 


etc., 


et ca?tera (and others). 


Messrs.; 


, messieurs 


ft., 


foot, feet. 




(gentlemen). 


hhd., 


hogshead. 


Mme. , 


madame. 


hdkf. 


, handkerchief. 


Mo., 


Missouri. 


i. e., 


id est (that is). 


Mrs. , 


(pronounced missis) 


1., 


line. 




mistress. 


11., 


lines. 


Mts., 


mountains. 


lb., 


libra (pound). 


Ph. D., 


philosophise doctor 


oz., 


ounce. 




(doctor of philosophy). 


P-> 


page. 


Reed., 


received. 


PP-. 


pages. 


Robt., 


Robert. 


qt., 


quart. 


Supt., 


superintendent. 


VS., 


versus (against). 


Thos., 


Thomas. 


viz., 


videlicet (namely). 






yd., 


yard. 



To the Teacher.— Explain to the pupils that the doubling of the / in //. and 
LL. D., and of ;;. in pp., with no period between the let ters, conns from plural- 
izing the nouns line, lex, and page. Hold the pupils to this Lesporj till they have 
mastered the application of the rules in Lesson 8, and have thoroughly learned all 
these common abbreviations. 



Verbs. 2J 

LESSON ll a 

VERBS. 

Mints for Oral Instruction.— We told you, Lesson 8, how, by noticing the 
essential likenesses in things and grouping those thus alike, we could throw the count- 
less objects around us into comparatively few classes. 

We began to classify icords according to their use or office in the sentence, and 
found one class that name things, and called them nouns. 

But in all the sentences given you, we have used and have had to use another class 
of words. These words, you notice, tell what the things do, or assert that they are, 
or exist. 

When we say Clocks tick, tick is not the name of anything ; it tells what clocks do; 
It asserts action. 

When we say Clocks are, or There are clocks, are is not the name of anything, nor 
does it tell what clocks do; it simply asserts existence or being. 

When we say Clocks hang, stand, last, lie, or remain, these words hang, stand, last, 
etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that clocks act or simply exist ; they tell 
the condition or state in which clocks are or exist, that is, they assert state of being. 

All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call Verbs (Lat. verbum, 
a word). The name was given to this class because it was thought that they were the 
most essential words in the sentence. They form the second part of speech. 

Give a score of verbs that express action. Give all that you think assert being or 
state of being. 

Questions on the Hints.— Do all words name things? What other office have 
words? What are words that assert action, being, or state called? What is a verb ? 
Do all forms of the verb assert ? Why was the name given to this class ? Illustrate 
the three things it may assert. 



DEFINITION.— A Verb is a word that asserts action, being", or 
state of being. 

There are two forms of the verb, the participle and the 
infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), which express action, 
being, or state, without asserting it. 

Direction.— Write after each of the following nouns as many appropriate verbs 
as you can think of : — 
Let 6ome express being or state of being. 



28 



The Sc7itence and the Parts of Speech. 



el.— 


Noun. 


'burns, 
melt 
scorches. 




Fire 

(or) ■ 
Fire* 


keep 

spreads. 

glow 

rages. 

heat 

exists. 



It e m ark.— Notice that the 
simple form of the verb, as 
burn, melt, adds an » when Its 

subject noun names but one 
thing. 



Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind. 

A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words : 
as, is learning, may be learned, could have been learned. 

Direction.— Unite the words in columns 2 and 3. and append the verbs thus formed 
to all the nouns in column 1 with which they will make good sense : — 

Remark.— Notice that is, wax, and has been are used with nouns naming one thine ; 
and that are, were, and have been are used with nouns naming more than one thing. 



1 


2 


3 


Words 


is 


exported. 


Cotton 


are 


refined. 


Sugar 


was 


coined. 


Air 


were 


delivered 


Teas 


has been 


weighed. 


Speeches 


have been 


imported. 



The examples you have written are sentences ; the nouns 
are subjects, and the verbs are predicates. 

As verbs are the only words that assert, every predicate 
must be a verb, or must contain a verb. 

Naming the class to which a word belongs is the first 
step in parsing. 

Direction.— Analyze and parse five of the sentences you have written. 
Model.— Poland was dismembered. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 4. 

Pars inn.— Poland is a noun, because ; was dismembered i- a verb, because it 

asserts action. 

Direction. —Find and write the verbs in the sentences given in Lessons CO and v^s, 
and tell why they are verbs. 



Modified Subject. 29 



LESSON It* 

MODIFIED SUBJECT. 
Adjectives. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— The noun which is the subject and the verb 
which is the predicate are not always or often the whole of the structure which we 
call the sentence, though they are the underlying timbers which support the rest of 
the verbal bridge. Other words may be built upon them. 

We learned in Lesson 8 that things resemble one another and differ from one 
another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities. Things are 
alike whose qualities are the same ; as two oranges having the same color, taste, and 
odor. Things are unlike, as an orange and an apple, whose qualities are different. 

It is by their qualities, then, that we know things, and are able to separate them or 
to group them. 

Eipe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful. In these two sentences we. 
have the same word apples to name the same general class of things ; but the prefixed 
words ripe and unripe, marking opposite qualities in the apples, separate them into 
two kinds, the ripe ones and the unripe ones. 

These added words Hpe and unripe, then, limit the word apples in its scope ; ripe 
apples or unripe apples applies to fewer things than apples alone. 

If we say the, this, that apple, or an, no apple, or some, many, eight apples, we do 
not mark any quality of the fruit; but the, this, or that, points out a particular apple, 
and limits the word apple to that one ; and an, no, some, many, or eight, limits the 
word in respect to the number of apples which it denotes. 

These and all such words as, by marking quality, pointing out, or specifying num- 
ber or quantity, limit the scope or meaning of the noun, modify it, and are called 
Modifiers. 

In the sentence above, apples is the Simple Subject and ripe apples is the Modi- 
fied Subject. These and all such words modifying nouns and pronouns are called 
Adjectives (Lat. ad, to, an&jacere, to throw), and form the fourth part of speech. 

Questions on the Hints.— What are the subject and predicate likened to in this 
Lesson? In what are things alike or unlike? Illustrate. How do we know things, 
and how are we able to separate or group them? In the sentences given, what do 
" ripe" and " unripe" do? What office have "the," "this," and "that"? What 
have " an," " no," etc. ? What are modifiers? What is the modified subject? What 
are adjectives ? What does the word mean ? Which of these three expressions, " ripe 
apples ;" "Hpe, mellow apples ; " "large, ripe, mellow apples," applies to Vie fewest 
apples ? What then is the effect, upon the noun, of increasing the number of adjec- 
tives ? Name at least a dozen ivords that can appropriately modify the word " books." 
Let some of them denote size ; others, shape ; others, color ; others, number. What are 
these words called, and why? 

DEFINITION.— A Modifier is a word or group of words joined 
to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning. 




30 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

The Subject with its Modifiers is called the Modified 
Subject. By some it is called the Logical Subject. 

DEFINITION.— An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun 
or a pronoun. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The cold November rain is falling. 

Explanation.— The two lines shaded alike and 
rain ^ ^ is falling placed uppermost stand for the subject and the 

predicate, and show that these are of the same rank, 
and are the principal parts of the sentence. The 
lighter lines, placed under and joined to the subject 
line, stand for the less important parts, the modi- 
fiers, and show what is modified.* 

Oral Analysis.— (Here and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysis and 
parsing whatever has been provided for in previous Lessons.) The, cold, and Novem- 
ber are modifiers of the subject. The cold November rain is the modijh d subject. 

Parsing .—The, cold, and November are adjectives modifying 7ain,—cold, and 
November expressing quality, and The pointing out. 

2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed. 

3. A free people should be educated. 

4. The old Liberty bell was rung. 

5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned. 

6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed. 

7. Every intelligent American citizen should vote. 

8. The long Hoosick Tunnel is completed. 

9. I alone should suffer. 

* To the Tf>ac?ier.—W\\en several adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjec- 
tive does not always modify the noun alone. That old wooden house was h 
Here wooden modifies house, old modifies wood en house, and that modifies old wooden 

house. This may be illustrated in the diagram by numbering \ 

the modifiers in the order of their rank, thus : 

Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ * \» 

in rank in the same way. and in the diagram this difference may be indicated as above. 

If the pupils are able to see these distinctions, it would be well to have them made 
in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuation and the arrangement. See 
Lessons 13 and 21. 



Composition — A djectives. 3 1 

10. They all remained. 

11. Five large, ripe, luscious, mellow apples were picked. 

12. The melancholy autumn days have come. 

13. A poor black fugitive escaped. 

14. The oppressed Eussian serfs have been freed. 

15. Immense suspension bridges have been built. 



COMPOSITION— ADJECTIVES. 

Caution. — When two or more adjectives are used with a 
noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If they 
differ in rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely 
modifying it. If of the same rank, place them where they 
will sound best — generally in the order of length, the 
longest nearest the noun. 

Explanation. — Two honest young men were chosen. A tall, straight, dignified 
person entered. Young tells the kind of men, honest tells the kind of young men, 
and two tells the number of honest young men ; hence these adjectives are not of the 
same rank. Tall, straight, and dignified modify person independently— the person 
is tall and straight and dignified ; hence these adjectives are of the same rank. 

Notice the comma after tall and straight ; and maybe supplied; in the first sen- 
tence and cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21. 

Direction.— Arrange the adjectives below, and give your reasons :— 

1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog. 2. Level low five the 
fields. 3. A wooden rickety large building. 4. Blind white beautiful 
three mice. 5. An energetic restless brave people. 6. An enlightened 
civilized nation. 

Direction.— Form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to these predicates :— 



1. 


have been invented. 


6. 


were carved. 


2, 


were destroyed. 


7. 


have been discovered. 


3. 


are cultivated. 


8. 


have fallen. 


4. 


may be abused. 


9. 


will be respected. 


5. 


was mutilated. 


10. 


have been built. 



32 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

J) irection.— Construct ten sentences, each of which shall contain a subject 
modified by three adjectives — one from each of these columns : — 
Let the adjectives be appropriate. For punctuation, see Lesson 21. 



The 


dark 


sunny 


That 


bright 


wearisome 


This 


dingy 


commercial 


Those 


short 


blue 


These 


soft 


adventurous 


Five 


brave 


fleecy 


Some 


tiny 


parallel 


Several 


important 


cheerless 


Many 


long 


golden 


A 


warm 


turbid 



Direct Ion.— Prefix to each of these nouns as many appropriate adjectives as you 
can think of : — 

River, frost, grain, ships, air, men. 

Direction. —Couple those adjectives and nouns, below, which most appropriately 
go together :— 

Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, faithful, saucy, spirited, 
violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly, 
waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dove, 
sparrow, blackbird, cow, hen, cackling. 



LESSOR U. 

MODIFIED PREDICATE. 
Adverbs. 

Hints for Oral Instruct ion .—You have learned that the subject may be 
modified ; let us see whether the predicate may be, 

If we say The leaves fall, we express a fact in a general way. But if we wish to 
speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and say The leaves fall early ; 
of the place of their falling, The leaves fall here; of the manner, The leaves fall 
quietly ; of the cause, Why do the leave-; fall t 

We may join a word to any of these modifiers, and even another to that, and say 
The leaves fall so very quietly. Here very modifies quietly, and *o modifies very by 
telling the degree. 



Modified Predicate. 33 

So very quietly is a group of words modifying the predicate. The predicate with 
its modifiers is called the Modified Predicate. Such words as so, very, here, and 
quietly form the fifth part of speech, and are called Adverbs (Lat. ad, to, and 
verbum, a word, or verb). 

Adverbs may modify adjectives; as, Very ripe apples are healthful. Adverbs 
modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns— by limiting-them. The horse has a 
proud step, or The horse steps proudly. 

Questions on the Mints.— How may the predicate be modified? How may the 
modifiers be modified? Illustrate. WJiat are groups of modifiers? The modified 
predicate ? What are adverbs ? What does the -word mean ? What parts of speech 
do they modify ? How do they limit ? The difference between an adjective and an 
adverb? Name ten xvords modifying "fall" in the sentence, " The leaves fall.'"'' Let 
them express time, place, degree, manner, cause. 



The 'Predicate with its Modifiers is called the Modified 
Predicate. By some it is called the Logical Predicate. 

DEFXMTIO^. — An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, 
an adjective, or an adverb. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The leaves fall very quietly. 

leaves t fall Eocijlanation.—Tke two lines forming this group slant 

\3i ' \ the same way to show that each stands for a modifying 

V VT - ^- word. The line standing for the principal word of the 

\k \^ group is joined to the predicate line. The end of the other 

\ ^ is broken, and turned to. touch its principal. 

Oval Analysis.— Very quietly is a modifier of the predicate ; quietly is the prin- 
cipal word of the group ; very modifies quietly ; The leaves is the modified subject; 
fall very quietly is the modified predicate. 

Parsing.— Quietly is an adverb modifying fall, telling the manner; very is an 
adverb modifying quietly, telling the degree. 

2. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down. 

3. The stern, rigid Puritans often worshipped there. 

Explanation.— There modifies worshipped, and often modifies ivorshipped there. 
See foot-note, Lesson 12. 

4. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 

5. The precious morning hours should not be wasted. 

3 



34 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

C. The timely suggestion was very kindly received. 

7. We both turned rather abruptly. 

8. A highly enjoyable entertainment was provided. 

9. The entertainment was highly enjoyed. 

10. Why will people exaggerate so ? 

11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unex- 
pectedly. 

12. We now travel still more rapidly. 

13. Therefore he spoke excitedly. 

14. You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed. 

15. A furious equinoctial gale has just swept by. 

16. The Hell Gate reef was slowly drilled away. 



LESSOR IS, 

COMPOSITION— ADVERBS. 

Caution. — Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as 
to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the 
sound also. 

Direction,— Place the italicized words, below, in as many different positions as 
possible, and note the effect on the sound and the sense :— 

1. I immediately ran out. 2. Only one was 'left there. 3. Quite a 
shower fell recently. 4. She looked down proudly. 5. Unfortunately, 
this assistance came too late. 

Direction.— Select subjects from Lesson 5, and compose five sentences taring 
modified predicates. 

Direction. — Construct on each of these subjects three sentences having modified 
subjects and modified predicates :— 
For punctuation, sec Lesson 21. 
Model . — clouds . 

1. Dark, heavy, threatening clouds are slowly gathering above. 

2. Those brilliant, crimson clouds will very soon dissolve. 

3. Thln,jU(cij clouds an scudding oner. 

1. ocean . 2. breeze . 3. shadows . 

4. rock . 5. leaves . 



Review Questions. 35 

Direction.— Compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modify verbs : — 

Heretofore, hereafter, annually, tenderly, inaudibly, legibly, eva- 
sively, everywhere, aloof, forth. 

Direction.— Compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shall modify 
adjectives, and five shall modify adverbs :— 

Far, usually, quite, altogether, slightly, somewhat, much, almost, 
too, rather. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

To the Teacher.— Unless the pupils have been very thorough in the preceding 
work, make two lessons of these Keview Questions. 

Lesson 8. — What is classification? Why and how do we clas- 
sify? Illustrate. On what basis do we classify words? How many 
classes are there ? What are they called? What does noun mean? 
What office have nouns ? What substitutes have nouns ? Why 
used ? Illustrate. What does pronoun mean ? Give some pronouns. 
Define a noun. A pronoun. What is the chief office of nouns ? 
What is every subject of a sentence ? Is every noun a subject ? Give 
the Rules for the capital letter and the period. 

Lesson 9.— Do the names of the days of the week begin with 
capital letters? Of the months? Of the seasons ? What is a class 
name ? Give the reason for the two capital letters in Jersey City, in 
Black Sea, in Reel Paver, in Mount of Olives, in Long Island, in George 
Washington, in Good Friday, in Isthmus of Suez, in Pilgrim's Prog- 
ress, in Tent on the Beach; for only one in Atlantic ocean, in Hudson 
river, in Kings county, in republic of Mexico, in empire of Japan; 
for the three in Holy One of Israel. 

Lesson 10. — How have we classed abbreviated words? Illustrate 
each class. Give some that are irregular in their abbreviations. 
Give some abbreviations that do not take capital letters. 



36 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, 

Lesson 11. — What office besides that of naming have words? What 
is a verb? Illustrate the three things it may assert. What does the 
word mean? Must a verb consist of only one word? What mu>t 
every predicate be or contain ? The first step in parsing? 

Lesson 12. — In what are things alike or unlike? Illustrate. How 
do we separate or group things? What is an adjective? What 
effect on the noun has it? Illustrate. The meaning of the word? 
What is a modifier ? The modified subject ? What do some call 
this ? 

Lesson 13. — Give the Caution, and illustrate it and the explana- 
tion. 

Lesson 14. — May the predicate be modified? By what? Define 
an adverb. What classes of adverbs are illustrated in this Lesson? 
What are groups of modifiers? What is the modified predicate'.' 
What do some call this? What parts of speech may an adverb 
modify ? Illustrate. What does the word mean ? 

Lesson 15. — Give and illustrate the Caution. 



LESSOfJ 47, 



PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND PREPOSI- 
TIONS. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— To express our thoughts with greater distinct- 
ness we may need to expand a word modifier into several word- ; as. A lona ride 
brought us t/iere, A ride of one hundred miles brought u< to Chicago These groups 
of words of one hundred miles and to Chicago,— the one substituted for the adjective 
long, the other for the adverb there,— we call Phrases. 

As adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs, they may modify their equivalent phrases; 
we can say The train stops only at tfu station. They sometimes modify only the prepo- 
sition of the phrase ; as, He sailed nearly around the globe. 

That we may learn the office of such words as of to, and at. used to introduce these 
phrases, let us see how the relation of one idea to another may be expressed. W, aJthy 
men. These two words express two ideas as related. We have learned to know this 
relation by the form and position of the words. Change these, and the relation is 
lost— men wealth. But by using of before wealth the relation is restored— men of 



Prepositional Phrases and Prepositions. 37 

wealth. The word of does not seem to express a distinct idea, but it shows the rela- 
tion between the ideas expressed by other words. 

All such relation words are called Prepositions (Lat. prae, before, and posilus, 
placed— iudicating their usual position before the noun). 

Questions on the Hints.— What may we use instead of a word modifier? Why 
do ive use it ? Illustrate. What are such groups of loords called? By what may they 
be modified, and why ? How may relations lost by change of form or position be re- 
stored? What are tliese relation words called ? What does the word mean? Write 
ten prepositions, each standing in place of " toward' 1 '' in the sentence, "He walked to- 
ward the house.' 1 '' 



DEFINITION.— A Phrase is a group of words denoting- related 
ideas but not expressing- a thought. 

DEFINITION. — A Preposition is a word which introduces a 
phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal 
word to the word modified. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of 
vibration. 

Explanation. — The diagram of 
pitch depends the phrase is made up of a slanting 

line standing for the introductory- 
word, and a horizontal line repre- 
senting the principal word. Under 
the latter are drawn the slanting 
lines which represent the modifiers 
of the principal word and the in- 
troductory word of its modifying 
phrase. 
Oral Analysis.— The and the adjective phrase of the musical note are modifiers 
of the subject ; the adverb phrase upon the rapidity of vibration is a modifier of the 
predicate. Of introduces the first phrase, and note is the principal word ; the and 
musical are modifiers of note ; upon introduces the second phrase, and rapidity is the 
principal word ; the and the adjective phrase of vibration are modifiers of rapidity; 
of introduces this phrase, and vibration is the principal word. 

Parsing. — Of is a preposition showing the relation, in sense, of note, to pitch; 
etc., etc. 

To the Teacher.— Insist that, in parsing, the pupils shall give specific reasons 
instead of general definitions. 




38 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

2. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United 
States by the blueness of the water. 

3. The North Pole has been approached in three principal direc- 
tions. 

4. In 1607, Hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the 
North Pole. 

5. The breezy morning died into silent noon. 

6. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis. 

7. Coal of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants. 

8. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. 



a(mosp~her 




Explanation.— Only modifies the whole phrase ; and just, the preposition. 

9. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just 
below the Falls. 

10. In Mother Goose the cow jumps clear over the moon. 

11. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the 
fifteenth century. 

12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected at 
Seville by the Saracens. 

13. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100,000,000 
miles. 

14. The body of the great Napoleon was carried back from St. 
Helena to France. 



LESSOR 48. 

COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

COMMA— RULE.— A Phrase out of its "natural order or not 
closely connected with the word it modifies, should be set off by 
the comma. 

* For the natural order of words and phrases, see Lesson 51. 



Composition — Prepositional Phrases. 39 

Explanation.— This rule must be applied with, caution. Unless the phrase is to 
be made emphatic, or it breaks the continuity of the thought, the growing usage 
among writers is not to set it off. 

Direction. — Tell why the comma is or is not used in these sentences : — 

1. Between the two mountain's lies a fertile valley. 

2. Of the scenery along the Ehine, many travellers speak with 
enthusiasm. 

3. He went, at the urgent request of the stranger, for the doctor. 

4. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday. 

5. In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a 
truce, he approached. 

Direction. — Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation :— 

1. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans. 

2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died. 

3. For the sake of emphasis a word may be placed out of its natural 
order. 

4. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced 
with wit. 

5. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth. 

6. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest 
times to the present day. "" 

Caution. — Place phrase modifiers where there can be no 
doiibt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard 
to the sound also. 

Direction.— Correct these errors in position, and use the comma when needed :— 

1. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by 
the president. 

2. That small man is speaking with red whiskers. 

3. A message was read from the President in the Senate. 

4. With his gun toward the woods he started in the morning. 

5. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at 
the old brick church was delivered. 

Direction .— Form a sentence out of each of these groups of words : — 
Look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation. 



40 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

1. Of mind of splendor under the garb often is concealed poverty. 

2. Of affectation of the young fop in the face impertinent an was 
seen smile. 

3. Has been scattered Bible English the of millions by hundreds of 
the earth over the face. 

4. To the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last through 
deep roads we after much fatigue came. 

5. At the distance a flood of name from the line from thirty iron 
mouths of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth. 

Direction.— See into how many good, clear sentences you can convert these l>y 
transposing the phrases : — 

1. He went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood. 

2. Ticonderoga was taken from the British by Ethan Allen on the 
tenth of May in 1775. 

To the Teacher. — Examine the text-books frequently, and see that no pupil marks, 
upon the page, the punctuation of the sentences. 



LE880U I©. 



COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

Direction.— Rewrite these sentences, changing the italicized words into equivalent 
phrases : — 
Model.— The sentence was carefully written. 
The sentence was written uilh care. 

1. A brazen image was then set up. 

2. Those homeless children were kindly treated. 

3. Much has been said about the Swiss scenery. 

4. An aerial trip to Europe was rashly planned. 

5. The American Continent was probably discovered by Cabot. 
Direction.— Change these adjectives and adverb- Into equivalent phrases ; and 

then, attending carefully to the punctuation, use these phrases In sentences of your 

own : — 

hence 11. Arabian 

northerly 12. lengthy 

national 13. historical 

whence 14. lucidly 

here 15. earthward 



1. Bostonian 


C. 


2. why 


7. 


3. incautiously 


8. 


4. nowhere 


9. 


5. there 


10. 



Compotind Subject and Compound Predicate. 41 

Direction.— Compose sentences, using these phrases as modifiers : — 

Of copper ; in Pennsylvania ; from the West Indies ; around the 
world ; between the tropics ; toward the Pacific ; on the 22d of 
December ; during the reign of Elizabeth ; before the application of 
steam to machinery ; at the Centennial Exposition of 18T6. 

Direction. — Give the reason for every capital letter in Lessons 18 and 19. 

To the Teacher. — If your pupils need more drill in the analysis and parsing of 
prepositional phrases, you can make up for them one exercise or two, from the sen- 
tences in Lesson 18, and those they are to construct in Lesson 19. 



LESS©! I©. 



COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND 
PREDICATE. 

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTEEJECTIONS. 

Hints for Oral Instruction. — Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth reigned in Eng- 
land. The three words Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth have the same predicate— the 
same action being asserted of the king and the two queens. Subjects having the same 
predicate and united by words expressed or understood form a Compound Subject. 

Charles I. was seized, was tried, and was beheaded. The three predicates was 
seized, tvas tried, and teas beheaded have the same subject— the three actions being 
asserted of the same king. Predicates having the same subject and united by words 
expressed or understood form a Compound Predicate. 

A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate ; as, 
Mary and Elizabeth lived and reigned in England. 

The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or a compound predicate 
are called Conjunctions (Lat. con [cum], together, and jungere, to join), and form 
the seventh part of speech. 

A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two word modifiers— A 
dark and rainy night follows. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. 

It may connect two phrases ; as, The equinox occurs in March and in September. 

It may connect two clauses, that is, expressions which, standing alone, would be 
sentences ; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, but the leaves of the maple drop 
in autumn. 

Interjections (Lat. inter, between, and jacere, to throw) are the eighth and last 
part of speech. 

Oh! ah! pooh! psha! etc., express bursts of feeling too sudden and violent for 
deliberate sentences. 



42 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Hail! fudge! indeed! amen! etc., once verbs, nouns, or adverbs, have lost their 
grammatical relation to other words. These express condensed thought as well as 
feeling. 

Expressing each a whole sentence-full of emotion or of thought charged with 
emotion, interjections are detached from the sentence and stand alone. Any part of 
speech may thus be wrenched from its construction with other words, and may lapse 
into an interjection; as, Behold! shame! what! 

Questions on the Hints.— What is a compound subject f A compound predi- 
cate? May a sentence have both? Give afresh example. What is a conjunction f 
Show the several things it may connect. What is an interjection? Why has it no 
grammatical relation? Illustrate the two kinds. What is their difference? What 
may convert any word into an interjection? 



Two or more connected subjects haying the same predi- 
cate form a Compound Subject. 

Two or more connected predicates having the same sub- 
ject form a Compound Predicate. 

DEFINITION. — A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words, phrases, or clauses. 

DEFINITION. — An Interjection is a word used to express 
strong- or sudden feeling". 

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Ah ! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news. 

Ah Explanation. —The three short hor- 

wives izontal lines represent each a part of the 

j\ compound subject. They are connected by 

sisters ; x \ , vail (lotted lines, which stand for the connecting 

; a / \J \ word. The x shows that a conjunction ifl 

mot? ers •/ %• v 1 understood. The line standing for the wotd 

\& \ nnrs modifier is joined to that parr of the subject 

^ ^ W line which represents the entire rabject 
Turn this diagram about, and the horizontal 
lines will stand for the parts of a compound predicate. 

Oral Analysis. — Wives, eisU r«, and mothers form the compound suhj.rt; anx- 
ious is a modifier of the compound subject ; and connects sisters and mothers. 

Parsing.— And is a conjunction connecting sisters and mothers,' Ah is an 
jeclion, expressing a sudden burst of feeling. 

2. In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. 
(For diagram see the last sentence of the "Explanation.'") 



Composition — Connected Terms and Interjections. 43 
3. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use. 



4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a 
strange parentage. 

5. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball, 
and there spreads out. 

6. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the 
nerves of the human body. 

7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are 
found in the body. 

8. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of 
all the faculties. 

9. Ugh ! I look forward with dread to to-morrow. 

10. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and 
solemn, is seen. 

11. Tush ! tush ! 'twill not again appear. 

12. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and 
in other parts of Asia. 

13. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. 

14. Feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century. 
(The line on which before stands should touch the part of the predicate line which 

represents the entire predicate. Let x , in place of exist, follow did.) 

15. The opinions of the New York press are quoted in every port 
and in every capital. 



lesson a*. 



COMPOSITION-CONNECTED TERMS AND 
INTERJECTIONS. 

COMMA— RULE.— Two or more words or phrases connected by 
conjunctions are separated from each other by the comma, unless 
all the conjunctions are expressed. 



44 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Remark.— When words and phrases stand in pairs, the pairs arc separated ac- 
cording to the Rule, but the words of each pair are not. 

When (1 » two terms connected by or have the same meaning : when (2) one term has 
a modifier that without the comma might be referred to both : or when (8) the parts 
of compound predicates and of other phrases are long or differently modified, they 
are separated by the comma though no conjunction is omitted. 

Direction.— Justify the punctuation of these sentences :— 

1. Long, pious pilgrimages are made to Mecca. 

2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 

3. Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States. 

4. The brain is protected by the skull, or cranium. 

5. Nature and art and science were laid under tribute. 

6. The room was furnished with a table, and a chair without legs. 

7. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 

Explanation.— ~Ko comma here, for no conjunction is omitted. Oaken limits 
bucket, old limits oaken bucket, and the limits old oaken bucket. See Lesson 13. 

8. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or 
female, friend or foe. 

. 9. We climbed up a mountain for a view. 

Explanation.— No comma. Up a mountain tells where tee climbed, and for a 
vieiv tells why tve climbed up a mountain. 

10. The boy hurries away from home, and enters upon a career of 
business or of pleasure. 

11. The long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the 
realm, and the brothers and sons of the king. 

Direct ion. —Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation, and give 
your reasons :— 

1. Men and women and children stare cry out and run. 

2. Bright healthful and vigorous poetry was written by Milton. 

3. Few honest industrious men fail of success in life. 
(Where is the conjunction omitted ?) 

4. Ireland or the Emerald Isle lies to the west of England. 

5. That relates to the names of persons or things without sex. 

6. The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the 
Syriac and the Chaldee. 

7. We sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little inlet. 

8. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and 
were fed with abundance of hay and grain. 



Analysis and Parsing. 45 

9. Spring and snmmer autumn and winter rush by in quick suc- 
cession. 

10. A few dilapidated old "buildings still stand in the deserted 
village. 



EXCLAMATION POINT— RULE.— All exclamatory expres- 
sions must be followed by the exclamation point. 

Jtemark. — Sometimes an interjection alone and sometimes the interjection and 
the words following form the exclamatory expression ; as, Oh! it hurts. Oh, the 
beautiful snow ! 

is used by many, if not most, writers chiefly or wholly in direct address ; as, 
father, listen to me. Oh is used as a cry of pain, surprise, delight, fear, or appeal. 

CAPITAL LETTERS— RULE.— The words I and O should be 
written in capital letters. 

Direction. — Correct these violations of the two Rules given above : — 
1. o noble judge o excellent young man. 2. Out of the depths 
have i cried unto thee. 3. Hurrah the field is won. 4. Pshaw how 
foolish. 5. Oh oh oh i shall be killed. 6. o life how uncertain 
o death how inevitable. 
Direction.— Analyze and parse the first seven sentences given in this Lesson. 



LES1©1 SI, 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 
Direction.— Analyze and parse the remaining sentences given in Lesson 21. 



LESSOR 28, 

COMPOSITION— CONNECTED TERMS. 

Direction.— Take the nouns below and compose sentences with compound sub- 
jects ; compose others in which the verbs shall form compound predicates; and 
others in which the adjectives, adverbs, and the phrases shall form compound modi- 
fiers:— 

In some let there be three or more connected terms. Observe Rule, Lesson 21, for 
punctuation. Let your sentences mean something. 



46 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Nouns. 
Arabs, Jews, Washington, beauty, grace, Jefferson, symmetry, 
lightning, Lincoln, electricity, leaves, landscapes, pictures, trunk, 
root, wall, mines, copper, petals, sepals, silver, flowers, gold, rose, 

lily. 

Verbs. 

Examine, accept, sing, pull, push, report, favor, shout, love, hate, 

like, scream, loathe, inquire, honor, approve, fear, obey, refine, hop, 

elevate, skip, refute, disapprove. 

Adjectives. 

Direct ion.— See Caution, Lesson 13. 

Bright, dull, acute, patient, careful, fastidious, apt, forcible, 
simple, homely, happy, short, pithy, arid, sticky, friable, fertile, 
wide, deep, jolly, mercurial, precipitous. 

Adverbs. 

Direction.— See Caution, Lesson 15. 

Neatly, slowly, carefully, sadly, now, here, never, forever, well, 
truly, really, hereafter, wisely. 

Phrases. 
On sea ; in the city ; by day ; on land ; by night ; in the country ; 
by hook ; across the ocean ; under arches ; by crook ; for weal ; over 
the lands ; for woe ; along the level road ; under the earth ; up the 
mountains ; beneath the skies ; through covered bridges. 



REVIEW. 
Capital Letters and Punctuation. 

Direction*— Give the reason for every capital letter and for every mark of punc- 
tuation used below : — 

1. The sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle, or 
skin. 2. The degrees of A.B., A.M., D.D., and LL.D. are conferred 
by the colleges and universities of the country. 3. Oh ! I am so 
happy ! 4. Fathers and mothers, sons and daughters rejoice at the 
news. 5. Plants are nourished bv the earth, and the carbon of the 



Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. 47 

air. 6. A tide of American travellers is constantly flooding Europe. 
7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and climbs 
slowly and steadily to the zenith. 8. He retired to private life on half 
pay, and the income of a large estate in the South. 

Direction.— Write these expressions, using capital letters and marks of punctua- 
tion where they belong : — 

1. a fresh ruddy and beardless french youth replied 2. maj, cal, 
bu, p m, rev, no, hon, ft, w, e, oz, mr, n y, a b, mon, bbl, st 3. o 
father o father i cannot breathe here 4. ha ha that sounds well 

5. the edict of nantes was established by henry the great of franco 

6. mrs, vs, co, esq, yd, pres. u s, prof, o, do, dr 7. hurrah good 
news good news 8. the largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents 
and dimes and dollars. 9. the baltic sea lies between Sweden and 
russia 10. the mississippi river pours into the gulf of mexico 
11. supt, capt, qt, ph d, p, cr, i e, doz 12. benjamin franklin was 
born in boston in 1706 and died in 1790 

Direction.— Correct all these errors in capitalization and punctuation, and give 
your reasons : — 

1. Oliver cromwell ruled, over the english People, 2. halloo, i 
must speak to You ! 3. John Milton, went abroad in Early Life, and, 
stayed, for some time, with the Scholars of italy, 4. Most Fuel con- 
sists of Coal and Wood from the Forests 5. books are read for 
Pleasure, and the Instruction and improvement of the Intellect, 6. In 
rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or rubbers 

7. hark they are coming ! 8. A, neat, simple and manly style is 
pleasing to Us. 9. alas poor thing alas, 10. i fished on a, dark, and 
cool, and mossy, trout stream. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 
Analysis and Pausing. 

1. By the streets of By-and-by, one arrives at the house of Never.— 
Span. Prov. 

2. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest navi- 
gators. — Gibbon. 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



3. The axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the centre of 
each and every town or city. — Holmes. 

4. The arrogant Spartan with a French-like glorification boasted 
forever of little Thermopylae. — Be Quincey. 

5. The purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling 
of pleasure or pain. — Hamilton. 

6. The thunder of the great London journals reverberates through 
every clime. — Marsh. 

7. The cheeks of William the Testy were scorched into a dusky 
red by two fiery little gray eyes. — Irving. 

8. The study of natural science goes hand in hand- with the cul- 
ture of the imagination. — Tyndall. 

9. The whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and 
washed and winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism 
in the sea. — Swain. 

10. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Chinese 
Wall, and from the shores of the Caspian sea to those of the Indian 
Ocean. — Draper. 

11. One half of all known materials consists of oxygen. — Cooke. 

12. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the time of Abraham, 
looked down on the plain of Memphis. — Stanley. 



L1SS0U 



WRITTEN PARSING. 
Direction.— Parse the sentences of Lesson 25 according to this Model for 
Written Parsing :— 





Nouns. 

streets, 
By-and- 

by, 
house, 
Never. 


Fron. 


Vt rbs. 


Adj. 


Adverbs. 


Prep. 


Conj. 


Int. 


1st 
Sentence. 


one. 


arrives. 


the, the. 




By, of, 

at, of. 






2. 


















3. 



















'■ Hand in hand may be treated as one adverb, or iviih may be supplied. 



Review Questions. 49 

To the Teacher. — Until the Stibdivisions and Modifications of the parts of 
speech are reached, Oral and Written Parsing can be only a classification of 
the words in the sentence. You must judge how frequently a lesson like this is 
needed, and how much parsing should be done orally day by day. 

In their Oral Analysis let the pupils give at first the reasons for every state- 
ment, but guard against their doing this mechanically and in set terms; and when 
you think it can safely be done, let them drop it. But ask now and then, whenever 
you think they have grown careless or are guessing, for the reason of this, that, or the 
other step taken. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Lesson 17. — Wliat may we use instead of an adjective or an adverb 
modifier ? Why do we use it ? Illustrate. What is such a group of 
words called ? Define a phrase. By what may a phrase "be modified, 
and why ? How may relations lost "by change in the form or the po- 
sition of words be restored? Illustrate. What are these relation 
words called ? Do they express ideas ? What is their office ? Define 
a preposition. What does the word mean? What have you now 
learned that an adverb may modify ? 

Lesson 18.— Give the Rule for the punctuation of the phrase. What 
is the explanation given of it ? Give fresh illustrations of the Rule. 
Give instances in which the phrase out of its natural position is not 
set off. Give the Caution relating to the position of the phrase. Give 
violations of the Caution and correct them. May the phrase often 
have many positions ? Illustrate this with a sentence of your own. 

Lesson 19.— What may be expanded into a phrase ? Give adjectives 
and adverbs, and expand them into phrases. 

Lesson 20. — W f hat is a compound subject? A compound predicate? 
Give a sentence of your own containing both. What is a conjunction? 
What does the word mean? Give examples showing what a conjunc- 
tion may connect. What is ae. interjection ? What does the word 
mean ? Has the interjection any grammatical relation to other words ? 
If not, why ? Illustrate the two kinds. What is the difference be- 
tween them? Show how any word may lapse into an interjection. 
4 



50 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Lesson 21. — Give the Rule for the comma -with two or more con- 
nected terms. Illustrate it. Give illustrations of the exceptions 
mentioned in the Remark. Give the Rule for the exclamation point. 
What besides an interjection maybe exclamatory? How are and 
oh generally used ? Is ever followed by an exclamation poyit ? 
Give the Rule for writing I and 0. 



LESSON 23, 

NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS. 

Hints for Oral Instruction. — In paying Washington captured, we do not 

fully express the action performed by Washington. If we add a noun and say 
Washington captured Cornwcdlis, we complete the predicate by naming that which 
receives the action. 

Whatever fills out, or completes, is a Complement. As Cornwallis completes the 
expression of the action by naming the thing acted upon— the object,— we call it the 
Object Complement. A verb may be completed by two or more connected nouns 
f orming a compound object complement ; as, Washington captured Cvrnicallis and the 
army. 

Questions on the Hints.— Why is not " captured " a coin pi te predicate ? Tloto 
may it be completed? What is a complement? An object complement? Why no 
called? What is a compound object complement ? Illustrate both. 



DEFINITION.— The Object Complement of a sentence 
completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. 

The complement with all its modifiers is called the 
3Iodified Complement. 

Analysis and Parsing. 
1. Clear thinking makes clear writing. 

thinking makes , writing Explanation.— The line standing for the 

\ ' \ object complement is a continuation of the 

\| V- predicate line. The little vertical line only 

\ \ touches this without cutting it. 

Oral Analysis.— Writing is the object COmpU TTU nt : cit WT writing is the modified 
complement, and makes clear tenting \> the entire predicate. 



Nouns and Adjectives as Attribute Complements, 51 

2. Austerlitz killed Pitt. 

3. The invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism. 

4. Liars should have good memories. 

5. We find the first surnames iu the tenth century. 

6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 

7. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 

8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held 
rank with the greatest schools of Europe. 

took revolves 

Oxford , 



held 



ranJc moon. , 



laeps | side 



9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. 

10. Hunger rings the bell, and orders up coals in the shape of bread 
and butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings. 

11. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, 
and forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity. 

12. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a propor- 
tion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art. 

13. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk and thatch 
roofs with the leaves of the cocoa-nut palm. 

14. The Scriptures have never yet revealed a single scientific truth. 

15. Richelieu exiled the mother, oppressed the wife, degraded the 
brother, and banished the confessor, of the king. 



LESSON 20. 



NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTE 
COMPLEMENTS. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— The subject presents one idea; the predicate, 
another, and asserts it of the first. Corn is growing presents the two ideas of corn 
and growing, and asserts the one of the other. Corn growing lacks the asserting 
word, and Corn is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted. 

In logic, the asserting word is called the copula— it couples or unites these two ideas 
to make a thought,— and the word or words expressing the idea asserted is called the 
predicate. But as one word often performs both offices, e. g., Corn grows, and as it is 
in dispute whether any word can assert without expressing something of the idea 



52 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

asserted, we pass this distinction by as not essential in grammar, and call both that 
which asserts and that which expresses the idea asserted, by one nam* — the predicate. 

The maple leaves become.— The verb become does not make a complete predicate; it 
does not fully express the idea to be asserted. The idea may be completely ex] 
by adding the adjective red, denoting the quality we wish to assert of leaves or at- 
tribute to them— The maple leaves become red. 

Lizards are reptiles.— The noun reptiles, naming the class of the animals called 
lizards, performs a like office for the asserting word are. Rolft 'a wifi wot FocahonlOS. 
Pocahontas completes the predicate by presenting a second idea, which 
be identical with that of the subject. 

When the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed doee not unite with 
the asserting word to make a single verb, we distinguish it as the Attribute Com- 
plement. 

Questions on the Mints.— What dors the subject do? What two things does 
the predicate do? What is the diffen-uri b<-tw<-cn ••corn is growing" and "corn 
ing" ? What, in logic is called the " copula " ? Why so called ? Why do we n< 
this word in grammar ? What one name do we use f In the sentenct given, what is 
the office of " red " ? Of " reptiles " ? Of " Pocahontas " ? How do these tkn t words 
differ in office ? Wliat do we call these three words, and win ? Define aid Ibute co/n- 
plement. In " Corn is growing,' 1 '' why do we not call "growing" an attribute com- 
plement ? 



DEFINITION.— The Attribute Complement of a sen- 
tence completes the predicate, and belongs to the subject. 



Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Slang is vulgar. 

Slang is vulgar Explanation.— The line standing for the at- 

' I tribute complement i-. like the object line, a con- 

tinuation of the predicate line ; but notice that the line which separates the Incom- 
plete predicate* from the complement slants toward the subject to show that the 
complement is an attribute of it. 

Oral Analysis.— Vulgar is the attribute complement, completing the predicate 
and expressing a quality of slang : is vulgar is the entire predicate, 

2. The sea is fascinating and treacherous. 

3. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable. 

4. The Saxon words in English are simple, homely, and substantial. 

• We call the verb the predicate ; but, when it is followed by a complement, it is an 
incomplete predicate. 



Attribute Complements — Continued. 53 

5. The French and the Latin words in English are elegant, dig- 
nified, and artificial. 

6. The ear is the ev or-open gateway of the soul. 

7. The verb is the life of the sentence. 

8. Good-breeding is surface-Christianity. 

9. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 

Explanation.— The subject names that of which the speaker says something. 
The terms in which he says it,— the predicate,— he, of course, assumes that the 
hearer already understands. Settle, then, which— plant or ivy — Dickens thought the 
reader knew least about and which, therefore, Dickens was telling him about, and you 
settle which word— plant or ivy— is the subject. 

10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity. 

11. Stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks 
of good- breeding. 

12. The north wind is full of courage, and puts the stamina of 
endurance into a man. 

13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and adventure in it. 

14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and 
grumbling, and curls one up in the chimney-corner. 

15. The south wind is full of longing and unrest and effeminate 
suggestions of luxurious ease. 



LESSON 30. 



ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS— CONTINUED. 
Analysis and Parsing. 

1. He went out as mate and came back captain. 

■ 7 9 ■ 'Explanation,.— Mate, like captain, is an 

went i mate attribute complement of He. Some would say 

^ft ' "* that the conjunction as connected it to He, 

contain **ut we think this connection is made through 

y N the verb went and that as is simply iiitroduc- 

% tory. This is indicated in the diagram. 

2. The sun shines bright and hot at midday. 

3. Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy. 

4. She grew tall, queenly, and beautiful. 



ITr 



54 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

5. Plato and Aristotle are called the two head springs of all 
philosophy. 

6. Under the Roman law, every son was regarded as a slave. 

7. He came a foe and returned a friend. 

8. I am here. I am present. 

Explanation.— The office of an adverb sometimes fades into that of an adjective 
attribute and cannot be distinguished from it. Here, like an adjective, seems to 
complete am, and, like an adverb, to modify it. From their form and usual function 
here should, probably, in this sentence, be called an adverb, and present an adjective 
attribute relating to /. 

9. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem and grati- 
tude. 

10. The warrior fell back upon the bed a lifeless corpse. 

11. The apple tastes and smells delicious. 

1*2. Lord Darnley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband. 

13. In the fable of the discontented pendulum, the weights hung 
speechless. 

14. The brightness and freedom of the New Learning seemed in- 
carnate in the young and scholarly Sir Thomas More. 

15. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court, and 
the gentleman and idol of the time. 



LESSON 34. 

OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— lie made the wall white. ITerc made docs not 
fully express the action performed upon the wall. We do not mean t<> say lie made 
the white wall, but He made-white (whitened) the wall. White helps modi to expreM 
the action, and at the same time it denotes the quality attributed to the wall as the 
result of the action. 

They made Victoria queen. Here made does not fully express the action performed 
upon Victoria. They did not make Victoria, but made-queen (crowned) Victoria. 
Queen helps made to express the action, and al the same time it denotes the office to 
which the action raised Victoria. 

Any word that, like the adjective white or the noun qveen, helps to complete the 
predicate and at the same time belongs to the object complement Is called an attri- 
bute complement ; but it differs from other attribute complements by belonging not 
to the subject but to the object complement, and so is an Objective Complement, 

Sonic of the other verbs which are thus completed are call, think, chooat, and name. 



Objective Complements. 55 

Questions on the Mints.— What words in the first sentence express the action 
performed upon the tuall f What are they equal to ? In "They made Victoria queen,' 1 '' 
does " made " fully express the action ? What office has " queen" ? What do tve ccdl 
" white" arid "queen " in these sentences? How do they differ from other attribute 
complements ? What are some of the verbs thus completed ? 



DEFINITION.— The Objective Complement completes the 
predicate, and belongs to the object. J 



Analysis and Parsing. 
1. They made Victoria queen. 



1 Victoria 



Explanation. — The line which sepa- 
rates the incomplete predicate from the 
complement slants toward the object com- 
plement to show that the complement is an 
attribute of it. 
Oral Analysis. — Queen is an attribute complement completing the predicate 
made and belonging to Victoria ; made Victoria queen is the entire predicate. 

2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul. 

3. Destiny had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster. 

4. President Hayes chose the Hon. Wm. M. Evarts Secretary of 
State. 

5. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English 
nobility, James I. created the worthless Villiers Duke of Buckingham. 

6. ^Ye should consider time as a sacred trust. 

Explanation.— As, you see, may be used simply to introduce an objective com- 
plement. 

7. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane. 

8. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to 
foreign courts. 

9. Shylock would have struck Jessica dead beside him. 

10. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous. 

11. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny. 

12. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music. 

13. They named the state New York from the Duke of York. 

14. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very 
ark of the constitution. 



56 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON I 

COMPOSITION— COMPLEMENTS. 

Caution. — Be careful to distinguish an adjective attri- 
bute from an adverb modifier. 

Explanation. — Mary arrived safe. We here wish to tell the condition of Mary 
on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving. My head feels bad {is in a bad 
condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). The .sun shines bright {is bright- 
quality, — as perceived by its shining). 

When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, 3011 see 
that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows. 

Direction.— Justify the use of these adjectives and adverbs :— 

1. The boy is running wild. 

2. The boy is running- wildly about. 

3. They all arrived safe and sound. 

4. The day opened bright. 

5. He felt awkward in the presence of ladies. 
G. He felt around awkwardly for his chair. 

7. The sun shines bright. 

8. The sun shines brightly on the tree-tops. 

9. He appeared prompt and willing. 

10. He appeared promptly and willingly. 

Direction.— Correct these errors and give your reasons : — 

1. My head pains me very bad. 

2. My friend has acted very strange in the matter. 

3. Don't speak harsh. 

4. It can be bought very cheaply. 

5. I feel tolerable well. 

Direction.— Join to each of the nouns below three appropriate adjecth 
pressing the qualities as assumed, and then make complete sentences by asserting 

these qualities :— 



Hard 
Model.— brittle J-glass. Glass is hard, brittle, and transparent. 

transparent 



Coal, iron, Niagara Falls, flowers, war, ships. 



Nouns as Adjective Modifiers. 57 

Direction. — Compose sentences containing these nouns as attribute comple- 
ments : — 

Emperor, mathematician,, Longfellow, Richmond. 

Direction.— Compose sentences, using these verbs as predicates, and these pro- 
nouns as attribute complements :— 

Is, was, might have been ; I, we, he, she, they. 

Remark.— Notice that these forms of the pronouns—/, we, thou, he, she, ye, 
they, and who— are never used as object complements or as principal words in prepo- 
sitional phrases ; and that me, us, thee, him, her, them, and whom are never used as 
subjects or as attribute complements of sentences. 

Direction. — Compose sentences in which each of the following verbs shall have 
two complements— the one an object the other an objective complement : — 

Let some object complements be pronouns and let some attribute complements be 
introduced by as. 

Model.— They call me chief. We regard composition as very important. 

Make, appoint, consider, choose, call. 



NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 

Mints for Oral Instruction.— Solomon's temple tvas destroyed. Solomon's 
limits temple by telling what or whose temple is spoken of, and is, therefore, a modi- 
fier of it. 

The relation of Solomon to the temple is expressed by the apostrophe and s ('s) 
added to the noun Solomon. This same relation of possession may be expressed by 
the preposition of; Solmnon's temple = The temple of Solomon. 

Don Pedro, the Emperor, teas welcomed by the Americans. The noun Emperor 
modifies Bon Pedro by telling what Don Pedro is meant. Both words name the same 
person. 

Solomon's and emperor, like adjectives, modify nouns ; but they are names of 
things, and, besides, when modified, are modified by adjectives, and not by adverbs ; 
as, Tlie tvise Solomon's temple, etc.; Don Pedro, the Brazilian emperor, etc. These 
are conclusive reasons for calling them nouns. 

They represent two kinds of Noun Modifiers— the Possess ice and the Ex- 
planatory. 

Questions on the Dints.— How is " Solomon's " a modifier of " temple " ? What 
is the relation of the man to the building ? How is it expressed ? What word indicates 
the same relation? Illustrate. How does the word "Emperor" modify the name 
" Bon Pedro " ? What part of speech are these two modifiers ? What are the nasons 
for calling them nouns ? What are these tivo kinds of modifiers called ? 



58 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I. 

favorite (Raleigh) , was beheaded Explanation. -Raleigh is writtenon 

• ' v ' '< ' \ \. the subject line, because it and favorite 

name the same person ; but Hah \gh If 
nes I enclosed within curves to show Wxai favor- 
ite is the proper grammatical subject. 

Oral Analysis.— Elizabeth's and Raleigh are modifiers of the subject, the first 
telling whose favorite is meant, tbe second what favorite. Elizabeth's favorite, Ealtiah 
is the modified subject. 

2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are 
derived from Tyndale's version. 

3. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero. 

4. A fool's bolt is soon shot. 

5. The tadpole, or polliwog, becomes a frog. 

Explanation.— Logically, or in sense, polliwog is explanatory of tadpole ; but 
grammatically the two words are of the same rank, as or connects them. See Les- 
son 76. 

6. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 

7. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was born in the year 5G9, and died in 
632. 

8. They scaled Mount Blanc— a daring feat. . 

The?/ . scaled , Mount Blanc f feat \ 



Explanation.— Feat is explanatory of the sentence They scaled Mount Blanc, and 
in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a short line placed after the sentence 
line. 

9. Bees communicate to each other the death of the queen, by a 
rapid interlacing of the antennae. 

Explanation.— Each, denoting one thing, is explanatory of Bees which d 

many things. Two or three words, as below, may be explanatory of one word ; or 
one word, of two or three. 

10. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks — brain, blood, and 
breath. 



Compositio7i — Nouns as Adjective Modifiers. 59 

11. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone — its shell and coat of 
amior — are on the outside of its body. 

12. Cromwell's rule as Protector began in the year 1G53, and ended 
in 1658. 

Explanation. — As, namely, to wit, viz., i. e., e. g., and that is may introduce ex- 
planatory modifiers, but they do not seem to connect them to the words modified. In 
the diagram they stand like as in Lesson 30. Protector is explanatory of Cromwell's. 

13. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful na- 
tions, namely, Russia, Austria and Prussia, united for the dismember- 
ment of Poland. 

14. John, the beloved disciple, lay on his Master's breast. 

15. The petals of the daisy, day's-eye, close at night and in rainy 
weather. 



LESSON 84, 



COMPOSITION— NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE 
MODIFIERS. 

COMMA— RULE.— An Explanatory Modifier, when it does 
not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it, is set off 
by the comma. 

Explanation,.— The words I and should be written in capital letters. The 
phrase I and restricts words, that is, limits its application, and no comma is needed. 

Jacob's favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were Sachet's children. Joseph and 
Benjamin explains sons without restricting, and, therefore, should be set off by the 
comma. 

In each of these expressions, I myself, we boys, William the Conqueror, John 
Adams, the explanatory term combines closely with the word explained, and no 
comma is needed. If the order of the words in the name John Adams is changed, a 
comma is needed ; as, Adams, John. 

Direction.— Give the reasons for the insertion or omission of commas in these 
sentences : — 

1. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat-club. 

2. The author of the Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan, was the 
son of a tinker. 

3. Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was careless of his literary 
reputation. 



60 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

4. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in Lis treatment of 
Montezuma. 

5. Pizarro, tLe conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard. 

6. TLe Emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast 
friends on a raft at Tilsit. 

Direction.— Insert commas, below, where they are needed, and give your rea- 
sons :— 

1. TLe Franks a warlike people of Germany gave tLeir name to 
France. 

2. My son JosepL Las entered college. 

3. You blocks ! You stones ! you Lard Learts ! 

4. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in tLe eyes of MoLammedans. 

5. He Limself could not go. 

6. TLe poet Spenser lived in tLe reign of ElizabetL. 

7. ElizabetL Queen of England ruled from 15o8 to 1603. 

Direction. — Compose sentences containing these expressions as explanatory 
modifiers :— 

TLe most useful metal ; tLe capital of Turkey ; tLe Imperial City ; 
tLe great EnglisL poets ; tLe hermit ; a distinguisLed American 
statesman. 

Direction.— Punctuate these expressions, and employ each of them in a sen- 
tence: — 

See Remark, Lesson 21. Omit or, and note the effect. 

1. Palestine or the Holy Land . 2. New York or tLe Empire 

State . 3. New Orleans or tLe Crescent City . 4. TLe five 

Books of Moses or the PentateucL. 

Direction.— After changing each prepositional phrase, below, to an explanatory 

modifier by omitting the of, use it in a sentence :— 
Punctuate what you write. 

1. His father's trade of wool-combing . 2. This land of Ca- 
naan . 3. TLe Lour of twelve . 4. TLe joyful cry of 

" land " . 5. TLe islands of Cuba and Hayti . 

Direction.— Change each of these prepositional phrases to a possessive modifier, 
and use it in a sentence :— 

1. TLe experience of a little boy . 2. TLe Listory of Eng- 
land . 3. TLe discoveries of Dr. Livingstone . 4. TLe ca- 
reer of Cromwell . 



Nouns as Adverb Modifiers. 61 



NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS. 

Mints for Oral Instruction.— He gave me a book. Here we have what many 
grammarians call a double object. Book, naming the thing acted upon, they call the 
direct object ; and me, naming the person toward whom the act is directed, the 
indirect, or dative, object. 

You see that me and book do not, like Cornwallis and army, in Washington captured 
Cornwallis and his army, form a compound object complement ; they cannot be con- 
nected by a conjunction, for they do not stand in the same relation to the verb gave. 
The meaning is not He gave me and the book. 

We prefer to treat these so-called indirect objects as phrase modifiers without the 
preposition. If we change the order of the words, the preposition must be supplied ; 
as, He gave a book to me. He bought me a book / He bought a book for me. He asked 
me a question ; He asked a question of me. 

Teach, tell, send, and lend are other examples of verbs said to be followed by double 
objects. 

Nouns denoting measure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction are 
often used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition. 
We walked four miles an hour. It weighs one pound. It is worth a dollar a yard. 
I went home that way. The wall is tew feet, six inches high. 

Guard against mistaking such modifiers for object complements. 

The idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before nouns denot- 
ing measure, direction, etc. In your analysis you need not supply one. 

Questions on the Hints.— What do many call "me" and "book" in the sentence 
given ? Why are they not a compound object complement ? How do tee treat " me " 
and all so-called indirect objects, and why? When must a preposition be supplied 
before them ? Wliat is their usual position in the sentence ? Give some verbs followed 
by so-called double objects. How are nouns denoting measure, direction, etc., used? 
Wliat are they equivalent, to? Hlustrafe. Why are they not object complements? 
Bo they often admit a preposition before them ? 

Analysis and Parsing. 
1. They offered Caesar the crown three times. 

They . offered , crown Explanation.— Catsar, the so-called dative 

object, and times, the noun denoting measure, 
stand in the diagram on lines representing the 
principal words of prepositional phrases. But 
there are no prepositions on the slanting lines, 
nor is there an x to mark the omission, there 
being no preposition understood. 
Oral Analysis.— Coesar and times, without prepositions, perform the office of 
adverb phrases modifying the predicate offered. 




62 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

2. We pay the President of the United States $00,000 a year. 

3. He sent his daughter home that way. 

4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a 
pound for his sugar. 

5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death. 
G. Serpents cast their skin once a year. 

7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 21, 1856. 

8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn an 
acre. 

9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 158G, his attendants 
brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water. 

10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. 

11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means 
of gills. 

12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor. 

13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. 

14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an 
ounce. 

15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night. 



LESSOR 36. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

To the Teacher.— If necessary, make two lessons of this. 

Lesson 28.— What is a complement ? Why so called ? An object 
complement ? What does it complete ? Illustrate. What is a com- 
pound object complement? Illustrate. A modified complement? 
Illustrate. 

Lesson 29.— What office has the subject ? What two offices has the 
predicate ? Illustrate. What is the copula ? Why so called ? What 
distinction do we neglect in grammar, and why? Define and illus- 
trate an attribute complement. Why so called? What is an incom- 
plete predicate? Is there ever any difficulty in distinguishing the 



Review Questions. 63 

subject from the attribute complement? What is the way out of the 
difficulty ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 30. — What is the office of as in the first sentence ? What do 
some say of it ? What is the reason for our disposition of it ? Into 
what, in its office, does an adverb sometimes fade ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 31. — Does made fully express the action asserted in the two 
sentences ? What words are needed to complete the expression of 
the action ? What are these words called ? What do they complete ? 
To what do they belong ? What are some of the verbs thus com- 
pleted ? What does as introduce in example 6 ? 

Lesson 32. — What is the Caution, and what the explanation of it ? 
Illustrate. Give some of the common errors. What forms of the 
pronouns are never used as object complements or as principal words 
in prepositional phrases ? What forms are never used as subjects or 
as attribute complements of sentences ? 

Lesson 33. — How do Solomon's and Emperor modify their nouns ? 
What relation does 's in the first word show ? Between what does the 
relation thus expressed exist ? Do these words perform the office of 
adjectives? Why are they not adjectives ? What kinds of modifiers 
are they? How are the two words in the fifth sentence related in 
sense? How grammatically? What office have as, namely, etc., 
before explanatory modifiers ? What may a single word be explan- 
atory of? Two or three words? Illustrate fully. 

Lesson 34. — Rule for the punctuation of the explanatory modifier. 
Illustrate fully. 

Lesson 35.— Give an example of the so-called double object. Which 
is the direct, and which the indirect, or dative, object ? What is our 
disposition of the latter ? When is the preposition used before this 
object? Illustrate. The usual position of this object? How are 
nouns denoting measure, etc., used? Why are they not object com- 
plements ? Do they often admit prepositions before them? 



64 The Sentence and iJie Parts of Speech. 



LESSOR 37. 

VERBS AS ADJECTIVES AND AS NOUNS- 
PARTICIPLES. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— Corn grows; Corn growing. Hero (/rowing 
differs from grows in lacking the power to assert. Growing is a form of the verb 
which cannot, like grows, make a complete predicate, because it only assumes the act 
—implies that the corn does the act. Corn may be called its assumed subject. 

This form of the verb is called the Participle (Lat. pars, a part, and capere, to 
take), because it partakes of two natures and performs two offices— those of a verb 
and an adjective, or those of a verb and a noun. 

Birds, singing, delight its. Here singing does duty (1) as an adjective, describing 
birds by assuming or implying an action, and (2) as a verb by expressing the act of 
singing as going on at the time they delight us. 

By singing their songs birds delight us. Here singing has the nature of a verb and 
that of a noun. As a verb it has an object complement songs; and as a noun it 
names the action, and stands as the principal word in a prepositional phrase. 

Their singing so sweetly delights us. Here also singing has the nature of a verb 
and of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb modifier sweetly, and as a noun it names 
an act and takes a possessive modifier. 

Singing bird* delight us. Here singing has lost its verbal nature, and expn 
permanent quality of birds— telling what kind of birds,— and so is a mere adjective. 
The singing of the birds delights us. Here singing is simply a noun, naming the act 
and taking adjective modifiers. 

You see that there are two* kinds of participles ; one sharing the nature of the 
verb and of the adjective ; the other, the nature of the verb and of the noun. The 
common endings of the participle are ing, ed, and en. 

The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an object or an 
attribute complement. 

Questions on the Hints.— How does " growing " differ from " grows " f Why 
does it not make a complete predicate ? What is this form of th< verb colli d. and why f 
Of what two natures does u partake? Illustrate both cases of Us doubt, nature and 
double office. Illustrate the cases where it loses its verbal natun . and becomt 1 an ad- 
jective or a noun. How many kinds of participles ar< then f What other endings 
than " ing " have participU s t What may participL 8 b< foUouh d by t 

* Many grammarians restrict the name participlt to the first kind, calling words 
of the second kind gerund*, because they suppose all verbal forms which are used as 
nouns to have a different origin, and to have once had a different ending. But the 
original participles, like other adjectives, are freely used as nouns. 



Verbs as Adjectives and as Nouns — Participles. 65 

Analysis and Parsing. 
The participle may be used as an adjective modifier. 

1. Hearing a step, I turned. 

I , turned Explanation. — The line standing for the participle is hroken ; 

one part slants to represent the adjective nature of the participle, 



X 



, step and the other is horizontal to picture its verbal nature. 

\ Oral JLnalysis.— The phrase hearing a step is a modifier of 

the subject ; * the principal word is hearing, which is completed by the noun step; 
step is modified by a. 

Parsing.— Hearing is a form of the verb called participle, because the action ex- 
pressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of an adjective and of a 
verb. 

2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use. 
Explana Hon.— The complement is here modified by a participle phrase. 

3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the "brain, extends down- 
ward through the back-bone. 

4. Van Twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the cele- 
brated forest of the Hague. 

Explanation. — The principal word of a prepositional phrase is here modified by 
a participle phrase. 

5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the 
populace with the sports of the amphitheatre. 

The participle may be used as an attribute comple- 
ment. 

6. The natives came crowding around. 

Explanation. — Crowding here completes the predicate came, and belongs to the 
subject natives. The natives are represented as performing the act of coming and 
the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of the predicate came seems 
to extend over both verbs. 

7. The city lies sleeping. 

8. They stood terrified. 

* Logically, or in sense, hearing a step modifies the predicate also. I turned when 
or because I heard the step. See Lesson 79. 

5 



66 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

9. The philosopher sat buried in thought. 

10. The old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving. 

The participle may be used as an object ire complement. 

11. He kept me waiting. 

Explanation,.— Waiting completes kepi and relates to the object complement 
me. Kept-waiting expresses the complete action performed upon me. He kept' 
wailing me — He detained me. The relation of nailing to me may be seen by changing 
the form of the verb ; as, I was kept waiting. See Lesson 31. 



12. I found my book growing dull. 

Explanation. —The diagram representing 
the phrase complement is drawn above the com- 
- hdl t plement line, on which it is made to rest by 

means of a support. All that stands on the 
I , found , /*\ , book complement line is regarded as the complement. 



\ 



\X Notice that the little mark before the phrase 
V and the one before dull point toward the object 
complement. 

13. He owned himself defeated. 

14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in 
turbulent mobs. 

15. I felt my heart beating faster. 

16. You may imagine me sitting there. 

17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned 
into a king. 



LESSOR 38, 



PARTICIPLES— CONTINUED. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

The participle may be used as principal word in a 
preposition al ph rase. 

1. We receive good by doing good. 

\v„ ~„„™,„ ~~.a Explanation. — The line representing the parti- 

rVe = receive . good .,;.,, . , , ' 

' ' Ciple here IB broken in the centre ; the lirst part rep- 

resents the participle as a noun, and the oth< 
-& °tng , good verb. (Nouns and verbs are both written on hori- 
zontal lines.) 



Participles — Continued. 6j 

Oral Analysis. — The phrase by doing good is a modifier of the predicate ; by 
introduces the phrase ; the principal word is doing, which is completed by the noun 
good. 

Parsing.— Doing is a participle; like a noun, it follows the preposition by; and, 
like a verb, it takes an object complement. 

2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain. 

3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand per- 
sons. 

4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and 
vigorously. 

5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having 
suffered. 

The participle may be the principal word in a phrase 
used as a subject or as an object complement* 

6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. 

Explanation.— The diagram of the sub- 
ject phrase is drawn above the subject line. 
All that rests on the subject line is regarded as 
the subject. 

Oral Analysis. — The phrase Your ivrit- 
ing that letter so neatly is the subject; the 
principal word of it is writing, which is com- 
pleted by letter ; writing, as a noun, is modified by Your; and, as a verb, by the 
adverb phrase so neatly. 

7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. 

8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent. 

9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment. 

The participle may be used as a mere noun or a mere 
adjective. 

10. The cackling of geese saved Rome. 

11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many a long- 
forgotten song. 

12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility. 

13. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner. 




68 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

The participle maybe used in independent or absolute 
phrases. 

14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the 
river. 

Explanation.— The diagram of the absolute phrase stands by itself. For further 
treatment of this phrase, see Lesson 44. 

15. Jesus having turned and spoken to Mary, she recognized him. 

16. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's 
" constitutionals." 



LESSOW 39, 

COMPOSITION— PARTICIPLES. 

COMMA— RULE.— The Participle used as an adjective modifier, 
with the words belonging- to it, is set off by the comma, unless re- 
strictive. 

Explanation.— A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me v:ith a song ; The 
bird sitting on the ivall is a wren. Lighting describes without restricting; fitting 
restricts— limits the application of bird to a particular bird. 

Direction.— Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson 37. 

Caution. — In using a participle be careful to leave no' 
doubt as to what you intend it to modify. 

Direction. — Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving your 
reasons : — 

1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a 
small family containing all the improvements. 

2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants 
built of brick. 

3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor hand- 
somely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap. 

4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in 
gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. 



Verbs as Nouns — Infinitives. 69 

5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevo- 
lent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger. 

Direction.— Recast these sentences, making the reference of the participle clear, 
and punctuating correctly : — 

Model.— Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen. 

Incorrect, because it appears that the ocean did the climbing. 

Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean. 

1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 

2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 

3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock. 
Direction.- Compose sentences in which each of these three participles shall be 

used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, as the 
principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement, as a mere 
adjective, as a mere noun, and in an absolute phrase : — 
Buzzing, leaping, waving. 



VERBS AS NOUNS— INFINITIVES. 

Hints for Oral Instruction. — I came to see you. Here the verb see, like the 
participle, lacks the asserting power—/ to see asserts nothing. See, following the 
preposition to, names the act and is completed \>y you, and so does duty as a noun 
and as a verb. In office it is like the second kind of participles, described in Les- 
son 37, and from some grammarians has received the same name— some calling both 
gerunds, and others calling both infinitives. It differs from this participle in form, 
and in following only the preposition to. Came to see = came for seeing. 

This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as a subject 
or as an object complement ; as, To read good books is profitable ; I like to read good 
books. Here also the form with to is equivalent to the participial form reading. 
Heading good books is profitable. 

As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way. without limiting it 
to a subject, we call it the Infinitive (Lat. inflnitus, without limit). 
' Frequently the infinitive expresses purpose, as in the first example given above, 
and in such cases to expresses relation, and performs its full function as a preposi- 
tion ; but when the infinitive phrase is used as subject or as object complement, the 
to expresses no relation. It serves only to introduce the phrase, and in no way 
affects the meaning of the verb.* 

The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the different com- 
plements. 

* For further discussion of to with the infinitive see Lesson 134. 



/<- 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Questions on the Hints.— How does "see," in (he first example, resemble a 
participle ? How does it perform the office of a noun and of a verb ? What is it like 
in office? Hoio does it differ from a participle? How is this for ?n of (he rerb fre- 
quently used ? What is its name, and why ? In " I came to see you," what does the 
infinitive express ? What is the office here of the "to"? In (he infinitive phrase as 
subject or object complement does "to" express any relation? What docs it dot 
What may the infinitive be followed by ? 

Analysis and Parsing. 

The infinitive phrase may be used as an adjective or an 
adverb modifier, 

1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams. 

hot-house is v trap o ra i Analysis.— To Intro- 

v^ W \ duces the phrase ; catch is the 

\ \ \s principal word, and sunbeams 

\ catch | mnbeams completes it. 

Parsing. — To is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the relation, 
in sense, of the principal word to trap ; catch is a form of the verh called infinitive ; 
like a noun, it follows the preposition to and names the action, and, like a verb, it is 
completed by sunbeams. 

2. Eichelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and 
decision of character. 

3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were 
defeated. 

4. We will strive to please you. 

Explanation.— The infinitive phrase is here nscd adverbially to modify the 
predicate. 

5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 

6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy. 
Explanation.— Happy completes make and relates to us. 

7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

Explanation .—The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the 
adjective hard. To heal = to be healed. 

8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to 
seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle 
palace, and again to sell off and wander. 



Infinitives — Continued. 71 

9. These apples are not ripe enough, to eat. 
Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the 
adverb enough. To eat = tobe eaten. 

The infinitive phrase may be used as subject or com- 
plement. 

10. To be good is to be great. 

XV. Explanation. — To, in each of these phrases, 

be v good \ be N great shows no relation — it serves merely to introduce. 
The complements good and great are adjectives 
is v x\ use(i aDstractl y> having no noun to relate to. 

11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 

12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 

13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 

14. He seemed to be innocent. 

Explanation.— The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an adjective. 
To be innocent = innocent. 

15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him. 

16. We should learn to govern ourselves. 

Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement. 

17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice. 



.E8S0II 4L 



INFINITIVES— CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 
The infinitive phrase may be used after a preposition 
as the principal term of another phrase. 
1. My friend is about to leave me. 



Explanation. — The preposition about intro- 
duces the phrase used as attribute complement ; 
the principal part is the infinitive phrase to leave 
me. 





72 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

2. Paul was now about to open his mouth. 

3. There is no way but to go on. 
Explanation.— But is here used as a preposition. 

The infinitive and its assumed subject may form the 
principal term in a phrase introduced by the preposition 
for. 

4. For us to know our faults is profitable. 
Explanation. — For introduces the sub- 
ject phrase; the principal part of the entire 
phrase is us to know our faults' the principal 
word is us, which is modided by the phrase 
to know our faults. 

5. God never made his work for man to mend. 
Explanation.— The principal term of the phrase for man to mend is not man, 

but man to mend. 

6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance. 
The infinitive phrase may be used as an explanatory 

modifier. 

7. It is easy to find fault. 

Explanation,.— The infinitive phrase to find 

\ fault explains the subject it. Eead the sentence 

find j fault without it, and you will see the real nature of the 

phrase. This use of it as a substitute for the real 
A fJ\\ io eas7 , subject is a very common idiom of our language. 

— ^H — ■ N ■ ■ It allows the real subject to follow the verb, and 

thus eives the sentence balance of parts. 

8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it. 

9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 

10. It is not all of life to live. 

11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful. 

The infinitive phrase may be used as objective comple- 
ment. 

12. He made me wait. 

Explanation.— The infinitive wait (here used without to) completes mwl< and 
relates to me. He madt -wait me = 1I< detained me. 

. This use of the infinitive is similar to the third use of the participle, described in 
Lesson 37. Compare Isaw him do if with I saw him doing it. Compare al<o He 



Infinitives — Continued. 73 

made the stick bend— equalling He made-bend (or bent) the stick — with He made the 
stick straight— equalling He made-straight (or straightened) the stick. 

The relation of ihese Objective complements to me, him, and stick may be more 
clearly seen by changing the form of- the verb, thus : I was made to wait, He was seen 
to do it, He was seen doing it, The stick was made to bend, The stick was made straight. 

13. We found the report to be true.* 

(The diagram for this will be similar to that for sentence 12, Lesson 37.) 
14» He commanded the bridge to be lowered, f 

15. I saw the leaves stir. 
Explanation.— Stir is an infinitive without the to. 

16. Bishop Jewel pronounced the clerical garb to be a stage dress. 



LESS©1 41s 



INFINITIVES— CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

The infinitive phrase may be used independently ,\ 

1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000. 

2. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 

3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette 
were executed. 

HemarJc— For the infinitive after as, than, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and 
infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms ; as, shall (to) walk, have 
walked. 

* This diagram illustrates another way of treating the infinitive with its assumed 
subject. The whole expression report to be true may be taken as a phrase comple- 
report ment equivalent to the clause that the 

\& I ST report was true. 

.^ f J \JL \ he x true This method of treating the phrase to be 

■ | J oun( i /\ \ " f rm indicates that it is merely an assumed 

modifier of report ; but it seems to us that 

it is made to belong to report through the verb found, as may be seen by changing 

the form of the verb— The report teas found to be true. 

t Notice the difference, in construction, between this sentence and the sentence 
He commanded him to lower the bridge. Him represents the one to ivhom the com- 
mand is given, and to lower the bridge is the object complement. This last sen- 
tence = He commanded him that he should lower the bridge. Compare He (old me togo 
with He told (to) me a story ; also He taught me to read with He taught (to) nu reading. 

% These infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79. 

4 



74 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Infinitives and Participles. 
Miscellaneous. 

4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 

5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the 
heat of the sun. 

6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having 
changed so. 

7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze. 

8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole. 

9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 

10. To be, or not to be, — that is the question. 

11. I supposed him to be a gentleman. 

12. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and re- 
pairing its waste, is a necessity. 

13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another 
time. 

14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of 
the window, to drown herself. 

15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours 
smoking and watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling. 



LISSOM 43, 



COMPOSITION— THE INFINITIVE. 

Direct ion.— Change the infinitives in these sentences into participles, and the 
participles into infinitives ;— 

Notice that to, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is changed to toward, 
for, of, at, in, or on, when the infinitive is changed to a participle. 

1. I am inclined to believe it. 6. There is a time to laugh. 

2. I am ashamed to be seen there. 7. I rejoice to hear it. 

3. She will be grieved to hear it. 8. You are prompt to obey. 

4. They trembled to hear such 9. They delight to do it. 

words. 10. I am surprised at seeing yon. 

5. It will serve for amusing the 11. Stones are used in ballasting 

children. vessels. 



Words and Phrases used Independently. 75 

Direction. — Improve these sentences by changing the participles into infinitives, 
and the infinitives into participles : — 

1. We began ascending the moun- 3. I commenced to write a letter. 

tain. 4. It is inconvenient being poor. 

2. He did not recollect to have paid 5. It is not wise complaining. 

it. 

Direction.— Vary these sentences as in the model :— 

Model.— Rising early is healthful, To rise early is healthful, It is healthful to rise 
early, For one to rise early is healthful. 
(Notice that the explanatory phrase after it is not set off by the comma.) 

1. Reading good books is profitable. 4. Endorsing another's paper is 

2. Equivocating is disgraceful. dangerous. 

3. Slandering is base. 5. Swearing is sinful. 

Direction.— Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitive shall be used as 
an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in three as a noun. 

Direction. — Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followed by an 
infinitive without to : — 
Model.— We saw the sun sink behind the mountain. 
Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see. 



LESS©!! 44= 



WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDE- 
PENDENTLY. 

Mints for Oral Instruction.— In this Lesson we wish to notice words and 
phrases that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest of the sen- 
tence. 

The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus serves only to arrest 
attention, and is independent by address. 

Poor man! he never came back again. Poor man is independent by exclamation. 

Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. Rod and staff simply call attention to the 
objects before anything is said of them, and are independent by pleonasm— a figure 
used sometimes for rhetorical effect, but out of place and improper in ordinary 
speech. 

IBs master being absent, the business was neglected. IBs master being absent 
logically modifies the verb was neglected by assigning the cause, but the phrase has 



y6 Hie Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

no connective expressed or understood, and so is grammatically independent. This 
is called the absolute phrase. 

His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking is a participle without 
connection, and with the adverb generally forms an independent phrase. 

To confer the truth, 1 was wrong. The infinitive phrase is independent. 

Some adverbs, as well, now, why, then., when, without modifying anything, they 
simply introduce the sentence, are independent. Well, life is an enigma. Now, that 
i^ strange. Why, it is already noon. There are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine 
Yankees. 

Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned, and so are 
independent. 

Whatever ie enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of the real <>f 
the sentence ; as, I stake my fame (and 1 had fame), my heart, my hope, my soul, 
upon this cast. 

Questions on the Hints.— What is meant by the independence of v:ords and 
phrases? What parts of speech are used independently? Illustrate the different in- 
dependent uses of the noun and the ivords with it. Of the verb. What are some of 
the adverbs so used ? Write a sentence containing an interjection and a parenthesis. 



Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows. 

Explanation.— Tom is independent by addre: ss, and in the diagram must stand 
by itself. But is used as an adjective modifying shadows. 

2. There are one story intellects, two story intellects, and three 
story intellects with sky-lights. 

Explanation.— There was once an adverb of place. But often, as here, it is now 
used idiomatically merely to throw the subject after the verb— the idea of place having 
faded out of it. To express place another there may follow it ; as, There is gold there. 

8. Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 

4. Hope lost, all is lost. 

o. The smith, a mighty man is he. 

6. Why, this is not revenge. 

7. Well, this is the forest of Arden. 

8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool. 

9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies. 

10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow. 

11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday. 

12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts. 



Composition — Independent Words and Phrases. Jj 

13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs. 

14. But the enemies of tyranny — their path leads to the scaffold. 

15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman !) managed the matter 
extremely well. 

16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Grand 
Army, from Moscow. 



COMPOSITION— INDEPENDENT WORDS AND 
PHRASES. 

COMMA— RULE.— Words and phrases independent or nearly so 
are set off by the comma. 

Jleniarh. — Interjections, as you have seen, are usually followed by the exclamation, 
point ; and there, used merely to introduce, is never set off. by the comma. When the 
break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in (5), Lesson 44, the comma is used ; 
but if it is more complete, as in (14), the dash is required. If the independent ex- 
pression can be omitted without affecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marks 
of parenthesis, as in (15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of pa- 
renthesis, see Lesson 148.) 

Words and phrases nearly independent are those which like however, of course, 
indeed, in short, by the bye, for instance, and accordingly, do not modify any word or 
phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole ; as, Lee did not, however, follow 
Washington'' s orders. 

Direction. — "Write sentences illustrating the several kinds of independent expres- 
sions, and punctuate according to the Eule as explained. 

Direction.— Write short sentences in which these words and phrases, used in a 
manner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate them properly :— 

In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover, 
however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, 
too, of course, indeed, in fine, namely, above all, therefore. 

Direction.— Write short sentences in which these words shall modify some par- 
ticular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma :— 

Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still. 



78 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



iESSOU 48. 

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO 
MEANING. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— In the previous Lemons \vc have considered 
the sentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let us now look 
at it as a whole. 

The mountains lift vp their heads. This sentence simply affirms or declares a fact, 
and is called a Declarative Sentence. 

Do the mountains lift up their heads? This sentence asks a question, and is called 
an Interrogative Sentence. 

Lift vjj your heads. This sentence expresses a command, and is called an Im- 
perative Sentence. Such expressions as You must go, You shall go are equivalent 
to imperative sentences, though they have not the imperative form. 

How the mountains lift vp their head*'. In this sentence the thought is e.\] 
with strong emotion. It is called an Exclamatory Sentence. How and what are 
usually used to introduce such sentences; but a declarative, an interrogative, or an 
imperative sentence, may become exclamatory when the speaker uses it mainly to 
give vent to his feelings; as, It is impossible! How can I endure it! Talk of 
hypocrisy after this! 

Questions on the Hints.— What does this Lesson treat of? How are sent* nce$ 
classified? How does each class express the thought ? How may you tell an imj» vo- 
tive sentence? How are exclamatory sentences usually introduced ? When may any 
sentence become exclamatory ? Illustrate. 



DEFINITION.— A Declarative Sentence is one that affirms or 
denies. 

DEFINITION.— An Interrogative Sentence is one that ex- 
presses a question. 

DEFINITION.— An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses 
a command or an entreaty. 

DEFINITION.— An Exclamatory Sentence is one that ex- 
presses sudden thought or strong feeling:. 

INTERROGATION POINT— RULE.— Every direct interrogate 
sentence should be followed by an interrogation point. 

Direction. — Before analyzing these sentences classify them, and justify the 
terminal marks of punctuation:— 



Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. yg 

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. There are no accidents in the providence of God. 

2. Why does the very murderer, his victim, sleeping before him, 
and his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of 
the mortal part ? 

3. Suffer Dot yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. 
(The subject is you understood.) 

4. How wonderful is the advent of spring ! 

5. Oh ! a dainty plant is the ivy green ! 

6. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work. 

7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of 
his age. 

8. How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to himself ! 

9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 

10. Lend me your ears. 

11. What brilliant rings the planet Saturn has ! 

12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character ? 

13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 

14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night 
long, on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead ! 

15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag 
into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his 
den, and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his 
cannon and the shouts of his triumph ? 



LESSON 47. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 
Analysis and Parsing. 

1. My having in Sanscrit, like Orlando's beard, is a younger 
brother's revenue. — B. O. White. 

Explanation.— Like is an adjective— like (to or unto) beard. 

2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu 
would permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence. 
— Stephen. 



So The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry ; a 
flag, floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory 
ministry to-day. — Conway. 

4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of 
foaming phrase. — Loicdl. 

5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew 
into strong eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of 
Greek literature, Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art. — De 
Quincey. 

6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three 
words— health, peace, and conrpetence. — Pope. 

7. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye. — Tyler. 

8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun. — 
Longfellow. 

9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plan- 
tagenets, become noble by association. — F. W. Robertson. 

10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night. — 
Beecher. 

11. In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Ruth, went 
gleaning the silent fields of childhood, and found the scattered grain 
still golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair. — Curtis. 



LESSON 43, 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 
Analysts and Paesing. 

1. By means of steam man realizes the fable of iEolus's bag, and 
carries the two and thirty winds in the boiler of his boat. — Emerson. 

2. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes 
the case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of Resurrec- 
tion. — Holmes. 

3. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of 
the Old. — Canning. 

4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the 
constant linguistic exercise of that organ. — Warner. 



Review Questions. 81 

o. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb 
ticketed upon it. — Earle. 

6. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of des- 
potism. — Phillips. 

7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so. — Gail 
Hamilton. 

8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds. — Lamb. 

9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes 
and composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual calni. — 
Addison. 

10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved be- 
yond the power of science. — Brown's Oram. 

Explanation.— Beyond the poiver of science = impossible, and so is an attribute 
complement. The preposition beyond shows the relation, in sense, of power to the 
subject phrase. 

11. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories 
by turning somersets in the air. — Longfellow. 



ilSS©« 49. 



REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION. 

Direction.— Give the reason for the marks of punctuation used in Lessons 10, 18, 
21, 28, 33, 37, 44, and 46. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Lesson 37. — How does growing differ from groicst Does it make a 
complete predicate ? Why not ? W r hat is it called, and why ? What 
two natures has it? Illustrate the double nature and the double 
office of the participle. What may it lose and become ? W T hat kinds 
of participles are here distinguished ? What are the common endings 
of participles ? What are the three uses of the participle illustrated 
in the sentences for analysis ? Explain each. 
4.* 



82 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Lesson 38. — What are the four uses of the participle illustrated in 
the sentences ? Explain each. 

Lesson 39. — What is the Eule for the punctuation of the participle 
and the participle phrase ? Give the explanation. What is the Cau- 
tion ? Illustrate errors under it. 

Lesson 40. — How does see in I came to see you resemble a participle? 
How does it perform the office of a noun and of a verb ? What is it 
like in office ? In what does it differ from a participle ? How is this 
form of the verb frequently used? What is its name, and why? 
In I came to see you what does the infinitive express ? What office has 
to? Does to before the infinitive always express a relation? What 
does it do ? What may the infinitive, like the participle, be followed 
by ? What two uses of the infinitive are illustrated by the sentences 
in this Lesson ? Explain each. 

Lesson 41. — What four uses of the infinitive are illustrated by the 
sentences in this Lesson ? Explain each. What is said of the use 
of it? 

Lesson 42. — What use of the infinitive is illustrated by the sentences 
in this Lesson ? Explain it. 

Lesson 43. — Into what may infinitives be changed? What does to 
become in the change? After what verbs is to before the infinitive 
omitted ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 44. — What is meant by the independence of words and 
phrases? In what ways is the noun used independently? Illustrate. 
What is the absolute phrase ? Illustrate. Logically, does it modify 
anything ? What forms of the verb are used independently ? What 
adverbs, and when ? How are interjections and parentheses used ? 

Lesson 45. — Give the Rule for the comma. What is the substance 
of the Remark? What is meant by words and phrases marly in- 
dependent ? Illustrate. 

Lesson AQ. — How are sentences classified in respect to meaning? 
How does each express the thought ? Define each kind of sentence. 
Give the Rule for the interrogation point. 



'■ — Natural Order. 83 



ARRANGEMENT— NATURAL ORDER. 

Let us recall the Natural Order of words and phrases 
in a simple declarative sentence. 

The verb follows the subject, and the object complement 
follows the yerb. 

Example.— Drake circumnavigated the globe. 

Direction.— Observing this order, write three sentences each with an object com- 
plement. 

An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun, 
and an explanatory modifier follows it. 

Examples.— Man's life is a brief span. Moses, the lawgiver, came down from the 
Mount. 

Direct ion.— Observing this order, write four sentences, two with possessive mod- 
ifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing an adjective. 

The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, 
follows the verb, the objective complement follows the 
object complement, and the so-called indirect object pre- 
cedes the direct. 

Examples.— Egypt is the valley of the Kile. Eastern life is dreamy. They 
made Bonaparte consul. They offered Ccesar a crown. 

Direction. — Observing this order, write four sentences illustrating the positions 
of the noun and adjective when they perform these offices. 

If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely 
modifying the noun stands nearest to it ; if of the same 
rank, they stand in the order of their length — the longest 
nearest the noun, if they precede it ; the shortest nearest 
if they follow. 

Examples.— Two honest young men enlisted. Cassius has a lean aud hungry 
look. A rock, huge and precipitous, stood in our path. 

Direction.— Observing this order, write three sentences illustrating the relative 
position of adjectives before and after the noun. 

An adverb precedes the adjective, adverb, or phrase 



84 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

which it modifies ; precedes or follows the simple verb or 
the verb with its complement ; and follows one or more 
words of the verb if the verb is compound. 

Examples.— The light far in the distance is so very bright. I eoon found him. 

1 hurt him badly. He had often been there. 

Direction — Observing this order, write sentences illustrating these several posi- 
tions of the adverb. 

Phrases follow the words they modify ; if a word has two 
or more phrases, those most closely modifying it stand 
nearest to it. 

Examples .—Facts once established are facts forever. He sailed for Lira-pool on 
Monday. 

Direction. — Observing this order, write sentences illustrating the positions of 
participle and prepositional phrases. 



lessor m. 



ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED ORDER. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— The common and natural order, spoken of in 
the preceding Lesson, is not the fixed and only order admissible in an English sen- 
tence ; on the conrrary, great freedom in the placing of words and phrases is some- 
times allowable. Let the relation of the words be kept obvious, and, consequently, the 
thought clear, and in poetry, in impassioned oratory, in excited speech of any kind, 
one may deviate widely from this order. 

One's meaning is never distributed evenly among his words ; more of it lies in some 
words than in others. Under the influence of strong feeling, one may use words out 
of their accustomed place, and. by thus attracting attention to them, give them addi- 
tional importance to the reader or hearer. 

When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual place, appearing 
either at the front of the sentence or at the rear, we have what we may call the 
Transposed Order. I dare not venture to go down into the cabin— Venture to go 
dmvn into the cabin I dare not. You shall die—Di- you shall. Tin lr names will for- 
ever live on the Up* of the people— Their name* will on the lipsofth* people forever live. 

When the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or the principal word 
of it, before the subject, we have the extremt example of the transposed order; as, 
A yeoman had he. Strange is the magic of a turban. 

Questions on the "Hints.— Is the natural order the common order f Is it the 

only ? Is there muck freedom of position in English ? 1\7iere do you find it ? What 
is the limit to it ? How do words and phrase* acquire importance t Why ? What is 



Arrangement — Transposed Order. 85 

the transposed order? What are the two grades of transposition? Illustrate both. 
Which is the higher grade? Which removal, to the front or to the rear, is the more 
common ? By which does the removed toord gain most ? 

To the Teacher. — Where, in our directions in these Lessons on Arrangement and 
Contraction, we say change, transpose, or restore, the pupils need not write the sen- 
tences. They should study them and be able to read them. Require them to show 
what the sentence has lost or gained in the change. 

Direction.— Change these sentences from the natural to the transposed order by 
moving words -or phrases to the front, and explain.the effect : — 

1. He could not avoid it. 8. He ended his tale here. 

2. They were pretty lads. 9. The rnoon shone bright. 

3. The great Queen died in the 10. A frozen continent lies beyond 

year 1603. the sea. 

4. He would not escape. 11. He was a contentious man. 

5. I must go. 12. It stands written so. 

6. She seemed young and sad. 13. Monmouth had never been ac- 

7. He cried, "My son, my son I" cused of cowardice. 
Direction. — Change these sentences from the transposed order to the natural, and 

explain the effect : — 

1. Him the Almighty Power 8. That gale I well remember. 

hurled headlong. 9. Churlish he often seemed. 

2. Volatile he was. 10. One strong thing I find here 

3. Victories, indeed, they were. below. 

4. Of noble race the lady came. 11. Overhead I heard a murmur. 

5. Slowly and sadly we laid him 12. To their will we must sue- 

down, cumb. 

6. Once again we'll sleep secure. 13. Him they hanged. 

7. This double office the participle 14. Freely ye have received. 

performs. 

Direction.— Write five sentences, each with one of the following nouns or adjec- 
tives as a complement ; and five, each with one of the adverbs or phrases as predicate 
modifier : then transpose the ten with these same words moved to the front, and 
explain the effect :— 

Giant, character, happy, him, chained, often, in the market, long 
and deeply, then, under foot. 

D irection.— Transpose these sentences by placing the italicized words last, and 
note the effect : — 

1. The clouds lowering upon our house are buried in the deep bosom 
of the ocean. 



86 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. * 

2. JEneas did bear from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the 
old Anchises. 

3. Such a heart beats in the breast of my people. 

4. The great fire roared up the deep and wide chimney. 
Direct ion.— Change these to the natural order:— 

1. No woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won. 

2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its 
proper price, displayed. 

3. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring of 
the family, suddenly stopped. 

4. Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the 
earth, concealed. 

5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in 
school, the most difficult and valuable. 

Direct ion. —Write three sentences, each with the following noun or adjective or 
phrase in its natural place in the predicate, and then transpose, placing these worda 
wherever they can properly go:— 

Mountains, glad, by and by. 



iSSOM 83. 



ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED ORDER. 

Direct ion.— Restore these sentences to their natural order by moving the object 
complement and the verb to their usual places, and till what is lost by the change :— 

1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth. 

2. "Exactly so," replied the pendulum. 

3. Me restored he to mine office. 

4. Such a changed France have we. 

5. These evils hath sin wrought. 

Direction.— Transpose these sentences by moving the object complement and 
the verb, and tell what is gained by the change :— 

1. The dial-plate exclaimed, " Lazy wire ! " 

2. The maiden has such charms. 

3. The English character has faults and plenty of them. 



Arrangement — Transposed Order. 87 

4. I will make one effort more to save you. 

5. The king does possess such great power. 

6. You have learned much in this short journey. 

Direction. — Write six transposed sentences with these nouns as object comple- 
ments,and then restore them to their natural order :— 

Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift. 

Direction. — Restore these sentences to their natural order by moving the attribute 
complement and verb to then- usual places, and tell what is lost by the change :— 

1. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 

2. Feet was I to the lame. 

3. A mighty man is he. 

4. As a mark of respect was the present given. 

5. A giant towered he among men. 

Direction. — Transpose these sentences by moving the attribute complement and 
the verb, and tell what is gained by the change :— 

1. We are merry brides. 

2. Washington is styled the "Father of his Country." 

3. He was a stark mosstrooping Scot. 

4. The man seemed an incarnate demon. 

5. Henry VIII. had become a despot. 

Direction. — Using these nouns as attribute complements, write three sentences 
in the natural order, and then transpose them :— 

Eock, desert, fortress. 

Direction.— Restore these sentences to their natural order by moving the adjec- 
tive complement and verb to their usual places :— 

1. Happy are we to-night, boys. 7. Blood-red became the sun. 

2. Good and upright is the Lord. 8. Doubtful seemed the battle. 

3. Hotter grew the air. 9. Wise are all his ways. 

4. Pale looks your Grace. 10. Wide open stood the doors. 

5. Dark rolled the waves. 11. Weary had he grown. 

6. Louder waxed the applause. 12. Faithful proved he to the last. 
Direction.— Transpose these sentences by moving the adjective complement and 

the verb :— 

1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 

2. The anger of the righteous is weighty. 

3. The air seemed deep and dark. 

4. She had grown tall and queenly. 



88 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

5. The peacemakers are blessed. 

6. I came into the world helpless. 

7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless. 

8. The fall of that house was great. 

9. The uproar became intolerable. 
10. The secretary stood alone. 

Direction.— Write five transposed sentences, each with one of these adjectives as 
attribute complement, and then restore them to the natural order :— 

Tempestuous, huge, glorious, lively, fierce. 



LESSON 14, 



ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED ORDER. 

Direction.— Restore these sentences to the natural order by moving the adverb 
and verb to their usual places, and note the los- :— 



1. Now is the accepted time. 

2. Then burst his mighty heart. 

3. Here stands the man. 

4. Crack ! went the ropes. 

5. Down came the masts. 

6. So died the great Columbus of 

the skies. 



8. Away went Gilpin. 

9. Off went his bonnet. 

10. Well have ye judged. 

11. On swept the lines. 

12. There dozed the donkeys. 

13. Boom ! boom ! wont the guns. 

14. Thus waned the afternoon. 



7. Tictac ! tictac ! go the wheels 15. There thunders the cataract 
of thought. age after age. 

Direction.— Transpose these sentences b}' moving the adverb and the verb :— 



1. I will never desert Mr. Micaw- 

ber. 

2. The great event occurred soon 

after. 

3. The boy stood there with dizzy 

brain. 

4. The Spaniard's shot went 

whing ! wiring ! 

5. Catiline shall no longer plot 

her ruin. 



6. A sincere word was never ut- 

terly lost. 

7. It stands written so. 

8. Venus was yet the morning 

star. 

9. You must speak thus. 

10. Lady Impudence goes up to 

the maid. 

11. Thy proud waves shall be 

stayed here. 



Arrangement — Transposed Order. 



Direction.— Write ten sentences in the transposed order, using these adverbs : — 

Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, jet, thus, never. 

Direction. — Restore these sentences to the natural order by moving the phrase 
and the verb to their usual places, and note the loss : — 



1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 

2. Seven years after the Restora- 

tion appeared Paradise Lost. 

3. Into the valley of death rode 

the six hundred. 

4. To such straits is a kaiser 

driven. 

5. Upon such a grating hinge 

opened the door of his daily 
life. 

6. In purple was she robed. 

7. Between them lay a mountain 

ridge. 



8. Near the surface are found the 
implements of bronze. 

9. Through the narrow bazaar 
pressed the demure donkeys. 

10. In those days came John the 
Baptist. 

11. On the 17th of June, 1775, 
was fought the Battle of 
Bunker Hill. 

12. Three times were the Romans 
driven back. 

13. To the very mouths of the 
cannon they rushed. 

Direction. — Transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and the verb : — 



1. The disciples came at the same 6. 

time. 

2. The dreamy murmur of insects 7, 

was heard over our heads. 8. 

3. An ancient and stately hall 

stood near the village. 9. 

4. His trusty sword lay by his 

side. 10. 

5. Pepin eventually succeeded to 

Charles Martel. 

Direction.— Write ten sentences in the natural order, using these prepositions to 
introduce phrases, and then transpose them, and compare the two orders : — 

Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to. 

Direct ion .—Write sis sentences in the transposed order, beginning them with 
these words: — 

There (independent), nor, neither. 



The house stands somewhat 
back from the street. 

Our sphere turns on its axis. 

The bridle is red with the sign 
of despair. 

I have served in twenty cam- 
paigns. 

Touch proper lies in the finger- 
tips and in the lips. 



90 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



lessor 55. 

ARRANGEMENT— INTERROGATIVE 
SENTENCES. 
If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, 
the order is natural. 

Examples.— Who came last evening ? What star shines brightest ? 

Direction.— Write five interrogative sentences, using the first word below as a 
subject ; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject ; the third as a 
subject and then as a modifier of the subject. 

Who, which, what. 

If the interrogative word is object or attribute complement 
or a modifier of either, the order is transposed. 

Examples.— Whom did you seer What are personal consequences ? Which 
course will you choose ? 

Direction.— Write an interrogative sentence with the first word below as object. 
complement, and another with the second word as attribute complement. Write torn 
with the third or the fourth as object or attribute complement, and four with the 
third or the fourth as modifier of the object or attribute complement : — 

Whom, who, which, what. 

If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is trans- 
posed. 

Examples .— Why is the forum crowded ? Where are the Jtow<:rs, the fair young 
flowers ? 
Direction.— Write six interrogative sentences, using these adverbs : — 
How, when, where,- wherefore, whither, why. 

If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands 
after the verb when this is simple ; after the first word of it 
when it is compound. 

Examples .—Have you your lesson ? lias the gentleman finished ? 

Direction. — Write six interrogative sentences, using these verbs: — 

Is, has, can learn, might have gone, conld have been found, must 
see. 

Direction.— Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson into declara- 
tive sentences. 



Contraction of Sentences. • 91 



LESSON 68. 

ARRANGEMENT— IMPERATIVE AND EX- 
CLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sen- 
tence; but, when it is expressed, the sentence is in the 
transposed order. 

Examples .—Praise ye the Lord. Give (thov) me three grains of corn. 
Direction.— Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which ihe subject 
shall be omitted ; and in five, expressed :— 

Eerneniber, listen, lend, love, live, choose, rise, obey, strive, devote. 

Although any sentence may without change of order be- 
come exclamatory (Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sentences 
ordinarily begin with how or what, and are in the trans- 
posed order. 

Examples.— How quietly the child sleeps ! How excellent is thy loving kindness ! 
What visions have I seen ! What a life his was ! 

Direction.— Write six exclamatoiy sentences with the word how modifying (1) an 
adjective, (2) a verb, and (3) an adverb— in three sentences let the verb follow, and 
in three precede, the subject. Write four sentences with the word what modify- 
ing (1) an object complement and (2) an attribute complement — in two sentences let 
the verb follow, and in two precede, the subject. 

Direction.— Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson into declara- 
tive sentences, and then into interrogative. 



LESSON 17, 



CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. 

Direction.— Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated modifiers and 
prepositions, and all the conjunctions except the last: — 

1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater, 
and a great writer. 

2. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alli- 
ances, they became powerful. 



92 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



3. Sam. Adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostentatious. 

4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental. 

5. There was no pause, no hesitancy, and no despondency. 

6. They are truly prosperous and truly happy. 

7. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remon- 
strances and resolutions and defiance. 

8. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations. 

Direction.— Expand these by repeating the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, 
and the conjunction : — 

1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend. 

2. The tourist travelled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine. 

3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous. 

4. Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart. 

Direction. — Write eight sentences, each with one of these words used fonrtimes ; 
and then contract them, as above, and note the effect of the repetitiou and omis- 
sion : — 

Poor, colossal, how, thus, with, through, or, and. 

Direction,— Expand these sentences by supplying subjects :— 

1. Give us this day our daily bread. 5. Where hast been these six 

2. Why dost stare so ? months ? 

3. Thank you, sir. G. Bless me ! 

4. Hear me for my cause. 7. Save us. 
Direction.— Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it :— 

1. Nobody there. C. Short, indeed, his career. 

2. Death to the tyrant. 7. When Adam thus to Eve. 

3. All aboard ! 8. I must after him. 

4. All hands to the pumps ! 9. Thou shalt back to France. 

5. What to me fame ? 10. Whose footsteps these ? 

Direction.— Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and note the loss 
in vivacity : — 

1. Upon them with the lance. 6. Off with you. 

2. At your service, sir. 7. My kingdom for a horse ! 

3. Why so unkind ? 8. Hence, you idle creatures ! 

4. Forward, the light brigade ! 9. Coffee for two. 

5. Half -past nine. 10. Shine, sir? 



Review Questions. 



93 



11. Back to thy punishment, false 14. Once more unto the breach. 

fugitive. 15. Away, away ! 

12. On with the dance. 16. Impossible ! 

13. Strange, strange ! 

Direction.— Contract these by omitting the subject or the verb : — 



1. Art thou gone ? 

2. Will you take your chance ? 

3. His career was ably run. 

4. Are you a captain ? 

5. May long life be to the republic. 

Direction.— Contract these by omittin< 
in force and animation :— 

1. May a plague come upon you. 

2. Now then go you to breakfast. 

3. Sit you down, soothless in- 

sulter. 

4. I want a word with you, wife. 

5. Those are my sentiments, ma- 

dam. 

6. Bring ye lights there. 

Direction.— Construct ten full sentences, using, in each, one of these adverbs or 
phrnses or nouns, and then contract them by omitting both subject and verb :— 

Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room, 
for the guns, water. 



6. How great is the mystery ! 

7. Canst thou wonder ? 

8. May a prosperous voyage be to 

you. 

9. Are you here ? 

; both subject and verb, and note the gain 

7. It is true, sir. 

8. We will drink a health to 

Preciosa. 

9. I offer a penny for your 

thoughts. 

10. Whither are you going so 

early ? 



LESSON 6$. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 
To the Teacher.— It necessary, make two lessons of this. 

Lesson 51. — What is meant by the order of words ? By the natural 
order ? Give the natural place of the verb in the declarative sentence. 
Of the noun in its several functions. Of the adjective in its. Of the 
adverb. Of adjectives and adverbs in groups. Of single phrases and 
of phrases in groups. Illustrate all these. 



94 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Lesson 52. — Is the natural order the common order? Is it the only- 
order? Is there much freedom of position in English? In what 
kinds of speech and writing do you find it ? What is the limit to it ? 
How do words and phrases acquire importance in the sentence ? Give 
the reason. What is the transposed order ? The two grades of trans- 
position? Illustrate both. What is the higher grade, and why? 
Are words in the predicate often moved to the rear ? By which re- 
moval, to the front or to the rear, do these words gain most, and why ? 
Is the order of subject and predicate disturbed in the sentences of this 
Lesson ? Which grade of transposition, then, is here illustrated ? 

Lesson 53.— Is the order of subject and verb disturbed in this Les- 
son? The noun in what function is first moved? In what other 
function, afterwards ? What other part of speech is moved from its 
natural place ? Illustrate all these. 

Lesson 54. — What part of speech is here moved? What phrase? 
How do the sentences in the natural and in the transposed order com- 
pare ? There, nor, and neither, at the beginning of sentences, do what 
to them ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 55. — What is the order in interrogative sentences when the 
interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it? What, when it is 
object or attribute complement or modifier of either? What, when it 
is an adverb ? What, when there is no interrogative word ? Illustrate 
all these. 

Lesson 56. — Is the subject usually expressed in imperative sen- 
tences? What is the order when it standc in the sentence? How 
may any sentence become exclamatory? With what words do ex- 
clamatory sentences generally begin ? What is the order ? Illustrate 
the grades of it. 

Lesson 57. — What do we mean by contraction? What are the sev- 
eral grades of contraction? What is the highest? Illustrate them 
all. What do sentences gain by contraction ? What is the main ob- 
ject of transposition and contraction? 



Complex Sentence — Adjective Clause. 95 



LESS©! ISs 

COMPLEX SENTENCE— ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 

Mints for Oral Instruction.— A discreet youth makes friends. In Lesson 17 
yon learned that yon could expand the adjective discreet into a phrase, and say A 
youth of discretion makes friends. You are now to learn that you can expand it into 
an expression that asserts, and say A youth that is discreet makes friends. This part 
of the sentence and the other, A youth makes friends, containing each a subject and a 
predicate, we call Clauses. 

The adjective clause that is discreet, performing the office of a single word, we call 
a Dependent Clause, and A youth makes friends, not performing such office, we 
call au Independent Clause. 

The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause, we call 
a Complex Sentence. 

Questions on the Mints.— Into what may an adjective or a phrase be expanded ? 
What is a clause? Illustrate. Wiat is a dependent clause f An independent clause ? 
A complex sentence ? Illustrate the three. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. They that touch, pitch will he defiled. 

Th ey , wil l be defiled Explanation. — The relative importance of the 

' two clauses is shown by their position, and by the 

\ difference in the shading of the lines. The pro- 

noun that is written on the subject line of the de- 
that \ . touch ! pitch pendent clause. That performs the office of a 

conjunction also. This office is shown by the dotted 
line. As all modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words they modify, you 
learn from this diagram that that touch pitch is a modifier of They. 

Oral Analysis. — This is a complex sentence, because it consists of an inde- 
pendent clause and a dependent clause. They will be defiled is the independent 
clause, and that touch pitch is the dependent. That touch pitch is a modifier of They, 
because it limits its meaning ; the dependent clause is connected by its subject that 
to They. 

To the Teacher. — Illustrate the connecting force of tcho, which, and that by 
substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting the loss of connec- 
tion. 

2. The lever which mores the world of mind is the printing-press. 

3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for 
his habits. 

Explanation. — The adjective clause does not always modify the subject. 



g6 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

4. Photography is the art which enables common-place mediocrity 
to look like genius. 

5. In 1685, Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the 
Edict of Nantes. 

G. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures 
which Sam. Adams framed. 

Explanation.— The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a sub- 
ject. If you substitute measures for which aud transpose the clause, you will under- 
stand the office of which. 

7. The guilt of the slave-trade, which sprang out of the traffic 

with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins. 
a 1 > fmtnd l & c \ 8. I found the place to which you re- 

NT \ ferred. 

you , re ferred \ 9. The spirit in which we act is the 

highest matter. 

10. It was the same book that I re- 
ferred to. 

Explanation.— The phrase to that modifies referred. That connects the adjec- 
tive clause. When the pronoun that connects an adjective clause, the preposition 
never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8). 

11. She that I spoke to was blind. 

12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him. 
Explanation .—A preposition is wanting. That = in which. 

13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. 

14. It is to you that I speak. 

Explanation.— Here the preposition, which naturally would stand last in the 
sentence, is found before the complement of the independent clause. In analysis 
restore the preposition to its natural place— It is you that I speak to. Analysis same 
as that of (10). 

15. It was from me that he received the information. 

{Me must be changed to I when from is restored to its natural position.) 

16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of 
the ocean. 

Explanation.— The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of moun- 
tains. 

17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers 
interesting. 



Adjective Clauses — Continued. 97 



LESSON §©. 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES— CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 

1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in 
the time you take to breathe. 

Explanation.— The connecting pronoun omitted. Supply thai. 

2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he 
works on. 

3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 

4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. 

Explanation.— The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject of whom. 
Supply him. 

5. He did what was right. 

He t did t x 

I Explanation. — The adjective clause 

modifies the omitted word thing, or some 
word whose meaning is general or indef- 
what \ . was s right inite.* 

6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of 
show. 

7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. 

8. What men he had were true. 

Explanation.— Men is here taken from its natural position before tchat, and 
placed after it, as if the relative were an adjective. In analysis restore it to its 
place— Men what (= that) he had were true. 

* Another way of treating the relative what is preferred by many of the ablest 
grammarians. It is well to know both methods. 

In the sentence lie did what toas right, it is said that the clause what was light is 
the object of did, and that what is the subject of was. 

" What was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. Its use 
as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect interrogative ; it is 
confined to clauses which may be parsed as substantives, and before which no ante- 
cedent is needed, or permitted to be expressed. Its possessive ichose has, however, 
attained the full construction of a relative."— Prof. F. A. March. 

7 



98 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled. 

Explanation.— The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (man or lie) of 
the independent clause. 

10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest. 

11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 

12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited. 

depot is place Explanation.— The line represent- 

v 1 — ~ — ^ '{ — 7- ing where is made up of two parts ; the 

\ \ V& upper part, representing where as a 

\& conjunction, connects the adjective 

stores\are deposited clause to place ; aud the lower ****" 
' r representing it as an adverb, modifies 

are deposited. As where performs these two offices, it may be called a conjunctive 

adverb. By changing where to the equivalent phrase in which, and using the diagram 

for (8), Lesson 59, the double nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen. 

13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. 
(Supply the place before where.) 

14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 

15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why ho followed a 
losing suit against Antonio. 

16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the opera- 
tions of the universe are conducted. 



LESSOR m, 



COMPOSITION— ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 

COMMA.— RULE.— The Adjective Clause, when not restrictive, 
is set off' by the comma. 

Explanation.— I picked the apple which was ripe. I picked the apple, which 
was ripe. In the first sentence, the adjective clause restricts or limits apple, telling 
which one was picked; in the second, the adjective clause is added merely to de- 
scribe the apple picked, being nearly equivalent to I picked the apple, and it was 
ripe. This difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation. 

Cmition.— The adjective clause should be placed as near 
as possible to the word it modifies. 



Composition — Adjective Clause. 99 

Direction.— Correct the following errors of position, and insert the comma when 
needed : — 

1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of 
King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. 

2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 

8. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm 
which we had for breakfast. 

4. You have no right to decide who are interested. 

Direction. — Construct five complex sentences, each containing an adjective clause 
equivalent to one of the following adjectives :— 

Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable. 

Direction.— Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by 
expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses :— 

1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 

2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of 
our liberties. 

3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the 
night. 

4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages 
of their native land. 

5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphan- 
age, have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate 
Chamber. 

Direction.— Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding 
the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses: — 

1. I have many things to tell you. 

2. There were none to deliver. 

3. He had an ax to grind. 

4. It was a sight to gladden the heart. • 

5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear. 

Direction. — Form complex sentences in which these pronouns and conjunctive 
adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses : — 

Who, which, that, what, whoever, and wlfatever. 
When, where, and why. 

Direction.— Change that which in the following sentences to what, and what to 
that which ; whoever to he who, and whatever to anything or everything which ; where 
and when to at, on, or in which; wherein to in which; and whereby to by which : — 



ioo The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

1. That which is seen is temporal. 

2. What God hath joined together let not man put asunder. 

3. Whoever lives a pious life blesses his race. 

4. Whatever we do has an influence. 

5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands 
on the very spot where brave men died. 

6. The year when Chaucer was born is uncertain. 

7. The play's the thing wherein I'll catch the conscience of the 
king. 

8. You take my life in taking the means whereby I live. 

Direction.— Expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers into adjective 
clauses :— 

1. A man's heart deviseth his way. 

2. Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck this flower, safely. 

3. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense 
Lie in three words — health, peace, and competence. 



Direct ion. —Analyze the last twenty one sentences in the preceding Lesson. 



lessor m, 



COMPLEX SENTENCE— ADVERB CLAUSE. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— He arrived late. In Lesson 17 you learned 
that you could expand the adverb late into a phrase, and say He arrived at midnight. 
You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of time, and say He ar- 
rived when the clock struck twelve. 

He stood where I am. The adverb clause, introduced by where, is a clause of 
place, and is equivalent to the adverb here, or to the phrase in this place. 

This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant. The adverb clause, introduced by 
as . . . as, modifies profitable, telling the degree of the quality expressed by it. 

Questions on the Hints.— Into what may an adverb be expanded? What are 
the three kinds of adverb clauses here spoken of? Illustrate them. What is an adverb 
dame? 



Complex Sentence — Adverb Clause. 



Analysis and Parsing. 
Tlie adverb clause may express time. 
1. When pleasure calls, we listen. 

we listen Explanation.— When modifies both listen and calls, 

I V denoting that the two actions take place at the same time. 

\^ It also connects pleasure calls, as an adverb modifier, to 

'% listen. The offices of the conjunctive adverb When may 

pleasure \ calls De better understood by expanding it into two phrases 



H^ 



thus : We listen at the time at which pleasure calls. At 



the time modifies listens, at which modifies calls, and ichich connects. 

The line representing Whenis made up of three parts to picture these three offices. 
The part representing it as a modifier of calls is, for convenience, written above its 
principal line instead of below it. 

2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. 

3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then the Lord will 
take me up. 

Lord . _ will tak e l _m e 



T^ 



Explanation. — By changing then into at 
the time, and WJien into at which, the offices 
of these two words will be clearly seen. For 
I me explanation of the line representing When, 
see Lesson 12 and (1) above. 



4. Cato, before he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the 
night in reading "Plato's Immortality." 

5. Many * a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave. 
Explanation. — Many here modifies year, or, rather, year as modified by a. 

The adverb clause may express place. 

6. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. 

7. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever 
he could find it. 

* " Mania man in Anglo-Saxon was used like German mancher mann. Latin multus 
vir, and the like, until the thirteenth century ; when the article was inserted to 
emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number. ,, — Prof. F. A. 
March. 



102 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

8. The wind "bloweth where it listeth. 

The adverb clause may express degree. 

9. Washington was as good as he was great. 
Explanation.— The adverb clause as he was great modifies the first as, which is 

an adverb modifying good. The first as, modified by the adverb clause, answers the 
question, Good to what extent or degree ? The second as modifies great and performs 
the office of a conjunction, and is, therefore, a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, 
and expanding as . . . as into two phrases, we have Washington was good in the de- 
gree in which he was great. Diagram as above. 

10. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. 
Explanation.— The words The . . . the are similar in office to as . . . as— Re 

became humbler in that degree in tvhich he became wiser. 

11. Gold is heavier than iron. 

Explanation.— Heavier = heavy beyond the de- 

Gold . is v heavier **■ and thm = in which - Tfle 8eilteiice = Gold 

I * 7 is heavy beyond the degree in tvhich iron is heavy. 

\& Is and heavy are omitted— frequently words are 

'% omitted after than and as. Than modifies heavy 

iron x \ x (understood) and connects the clause expressing 

H"^ — degree to heavier, and is, therefore, a conjunctive 

adverb. 

12. To be right is better than to be president. 

Explanation.— To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be presi- 
dent (would be good). 

13. It was so cold that the mercury froze. 

Explanation. 0The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced. 
The adverb so, modified by the adverb clause that the mercury froze, answers the 
question, Cold to what degree? The sentence = It was cold to that degree in which 
the mercury froze. That, as you see, modifies froze and connects the clauses ; it is, 
therefore, a conjunctive adverb. 

14. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury. 

Explanation.— It was so cold as to freeze the mercury would indicate or require. 
Or, It was as cold as it would be to freeze the mercury. Some would resolve this 
phrase into the clause that the mercury froze. 

15. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding 
for it. 

16. He called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded. 
. 17. To preach is easier than to practice. 

13. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion. 



Adverb Clause — Continued. 103 



ADVERB CLAUSE— CONTINUED. 

Hints for Oral Instruction. — He lived as the fool lives. The adverb clause, 
introduced by as, is a clause of manner, and is equivalent to the adverb foolishly, 
or to the phrase in a foolish manner. 

The ground is wet, because it has rained. The adverb clause, introduced by be- 
cause, assigns the real cause of the ground's being wet. 

It has rained, for the ground is wet. The adverb clause, introduced by for, does 
not assign the cause for the raining, but the cause, or, rather, the reason, for be- 
lieving that it has rained. 

Questions on the Hints.— What are the three kinds of adverb clauses here 
spoken off Wliat is the clause of manner equal to? Illustrate. What is meant by 
real cause? Illustrate. What is the difference between real cause and reason? Illus- 
trate. 

Analysis and Parsing. 
The adverb clause may express manner. 

1. He died as lie lived. 

Explanation.— Tie died in the manner in which he lived. For diagram, see (1), 
Lesson 63. 

2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 

3. As the upright man thinks so he speaks. 

(For diagram of as . . . so, see when . . . then (3), Lesson 63.) 

4. As is the boy so will be the man. 

5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the 
surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore. 

The adverb clause may express real cause. 

6. The ground is wet, because it has rained. 



\ 



'•$, Explanation.— Because, being a mere conjunc- 

\\ tion, stands on a line wholly dotted. 

it y\has rained 



7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking. 



104 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

8. We should keep the pores of the skin open, for through them 
the blood throws off its impurities. 

9. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, our sleeping 
rooms should be well ventilated. 

10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it com- 
bines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits. 

11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains, because bread is made 
from its flour. 

The adverb clause may express reason. 

12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew 
them in the wilderness. 

13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh 
found them here. 

14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning. 

15. We Americans are all cuckoos, for we build our homes in the 
nests of other birds. 



LESSON SI, 

ADVERB CLAUSE— CONTINUED. 

Mints for Oral Instruction.— If it rains, the ground will be wet. The ad- 
verb clause, introduced by if, assigns what, if it occurs, nil/ be the cause of the 
ground's being wet ; but, as here expressed, is only a condition ready to become a 
cause. 

He takes exercise that he may get well. The adverb clause, introduced by that, 
assigns the cause or motive or, better, the purpose of his exercising. 

The ground is dry, although it has rained. The adverb clause, introduced by 
although, expresses a concession. It is conceded that a cause for the ground's not 
being dry exists ; but, in spite of this cause, it is asserted that the ground is dry. 

All these dependent clauses of real cause, reason, condition, purpoet . and con 
come, as you see, under the general head of Cause, although only the first assigns 
the cause proper. 

Questions on the 'Hints.— What are the three kinds of adverb clauses here 
spoken of? What do we mean by a condition ? Illustrate. What by purpose ? Illus- 
trate. What is a concession t What is here conceded? What is asserted in spit* qf 

the cause ? Show how these five kinds of clauses come under tlie general head of 
Cause. 



Adverb Clause — Continued. 105 

• 
Analysis and Parsing. 

The adverb clause may express condition. 

1. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to pro- 
duce combustion. 

2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always 
use prose. 

( Unless = if not.) 

3. If ever you saw a crow with a king -bird after him, you have an 
image of a dull speaker and a lively listener. 

4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors 
and the rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part 
of the year. 

Explanation.— The relative position of the subject and the verb renders the if 
unnecessary. This omission of if is a common idiom. 

5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is 
thrown into the grate to keep the furnace in play. 

The adverb clause may express purpose. 

6. Language was given us that we might say jneasant things to 
each other. 

Explanation.— That, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere conjunction. 

7. Spiders have eyes all over their heads in order that they may 
see in many directions at one time. 

Explanation .—The phrases in order that, so that = that. 

8. The ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez was dug so that 
European vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope to reach 
the Orient. 

9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains 
them dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds, that it may 
drop them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth. 

The adverb clause may express concession. 

10. Although the brain is only one fortieth of the body, about one 
sixth of the blood is sent to it. 



io6 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

11. Though the atmosphere* presses on us with a load of fifteen 
pounds on every square inch of surface, still we do not feel its weight. 

Explanation.— Still, yet, etc., are conjunctive adverbs, which, besides modifying, 
may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves. 

12. Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his 
foolishness depart from him. 

13. If the War of Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom, it 
arrested its progress for a hundred years. 

Explanation.— If \\ave — even if = though. 

14. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not 
sufficient to make up the loss caused by evaporation. 



LESS©! 66. 



COMPOSITION— ADVERB CLAUSES. 

COMMA— RULE.— An Adverb Clause is set off by the comma, 
unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies. 

Explanation. — I met him in Paris, token I was last abroad. I will not call him 
villain, because it would be unparliamentary. Paper was invented in China, if the 
Chinese tell (he truth. In these sentences the adverb clauses ate not restrictive, but 
are supplementary, and are added almost as afterthoughts. 

Glass bends easily when it is red-hot. Leaves do not turn red because the frost 
colors them. It will break if you touch it. Here the adverb clauses are restrictive ; 
each is very closely related in thought to the independent clause, and may almost 
be said to be the essential part of the sentence. 

When the adverb clause precedes, it is set off. 

Direct ion.— Tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off in Lessons 63 and 64. 

Direction.— Write, after these independent clauses, adverb clauses of time,])lace y 
degree, etc., and punctuate according to the Rule :— 

1. The leaves of the water-maple turn red — time. 

2. Our eyes cannot bear the light — time. 

3. Millions of soldiers sleep— place. 

4. The Bunker Hill Monument stands — place. 

5. Every spire of grass was so edged and tipped with dew — degree. 

6. Vesuvius threw its lava so far — degree. 

7. The tree is inclined — manner. 



Composition — Adverb Clauses. 107 

8. The lion springs upon his prey — manner. 

9. 123 persons died in the Black Hole of Calcutta — cause. 

10. Dew does not form in a cloudy night — cause. 

11. That thunderbolt fell a mile away — reason. 

12. We dream in our sleep — reason. 

13. Peter the Great worked in Holland in disguise— purpose. 

14. We put salt into butter and upon meat— purpose. 

15. Iron bends and moulds easily — condition. 

16. Apples would not fall to the ground — condition. 

17. Europe conquered Napoleon at last — concession. 

18. Punishment follows every violation of nature's laws — concession. 
Direction.— Analyze the first nine sentences which you have here. completed. 



LESS©! §? 9 

COMPOSITION— ADVERB CLAUSES. 
Aekangement. 
The adverb clause may stand before the independent 
clause, between the parts of it, or after it. 

Direct ion.— Think, if you can, of another adverb clause for each independent 
clause in the preceding Lesson, and by means of a caret ( . ) indicate where it may 
properly stand in the sentence. Note its force in its several positions, and attend to 
the punctuation. Some of these adverb clauses can stand only at the end. 

Direction.— Analyze the last nine sentences which you completed in Lesson 66. 



LESSOR §0. 

COMPOSITION— ADVERB CLAUSES. 

An adverb clause may be contracted into a participle or 
a participle phrase. 

JExam-ple.— Wlien he saw me, he stopped = Seeing me, he stopped. 
Direct ion.— Contract these complex sentences to simple ones :— 
1. Coral insects, when they die, form vast islands with their bodies. 



108 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

2. The water will freeze, for it has cooled to 32°. 

3. Truth, though she (may) be crushed to earth, will rise again. 

4. Error, if he is wounded, writhes with pain, and dies among his 
worshippers. 

5. Black clothes are too warm in summer, because they absorb 
heat. 

An adverb clause may be contracted to an absolute 
phrase. 

Example.— When night came on, we gave up the chase = Night coming on, we 
gave up the chase. 
Direction..— Contract these complex sentences to simple ones : — 

1. When oxygen and carbon unite in the minute blood-vessels, 
heat is produced. 

2. It will rain to-morrow, for "Probabilities" predicts it. 

3. War, though we look at it in its most favorable light, is a dire 
evil. 

4. Washington retreated from Long Island, because his army was 
outnumbered. 

5. If Chaucer is called the father of our later English poetry, 
Wycliffe should be called the father of our later English prose. 

An adverb clause may be contracted to a prepositional 
phrase, having for its principal word (1) a participle, (2) an 
infinitive, or (3) a noun. 

Direction.— Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase 
having a participle for its principal word : — 

Model.— They will call before they leave the city = They will call before leaving the 
city. 

1. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosses the 
Atlantic. 

2. If we use household words, we shall be better understood. 

3. He grew rich, because he attended to his business. 

4. Though they persecuted the Christians, they did not exterminate 
them. 

Direction.— Contract each of these adverb clauses to an infinitive phrase :— 
Model.— She stoops that she may conquer = She stoops to conquer. 
1. The pine tree is so tall that it overlooks all its neighbors. 



Composition — Adverb Clauses. 109 

2. Philip I. built the Armada that he might conquer England. 

3. He is foolish, because he leaves school so early in life. 

4. What would I give, if I could see you happy ! 

5. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently. 
Direction.— Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase 

having a noun for its principal word : — 
Model.— He fought that he might obtain glory = He fought for glory. 

1. Luther died where he was born. 

2. A fish breathes, though it has no lungs. 

3. The general marched as he was ordered. 

4. Criminals are punished that society may be safe. 

5. If you are free from vices, you may expect a happy old age. 

Aii adverb clause may be contracted by simply omitting 
such words as may easily be supplied. 

Example.— WJien you are right, go ahead = Wlien right, go ahead. 
Direction.— Contract these adverb clauses : — 

1. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis I. 

2. Error must yield, however strongly it may be defended. 
Explanation.— However modifies strongly, and connects a concessive clause. 

3. Much wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease. 

4. No other English author has uttered so many pithy sayings as 
Shakespeare has uttered. 

(Frequently, clauses introduced by as and than are contracted.) 

5. The sun is many times larger than the earth is large. 
(Sentences like this never appear in the full form.) 

6. This is a prose era rather than it is a poetic era. 

An adverb clause may sometimes be changed to an adjec- 
tive clause or phrase. 

Example.— This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends = This man. who 
has no friends, is to be pitied = This man, having no friends, is to be pitied = This 
man, without friends, is to be pitied. 

Direction.— Change each of the following adverb clauses first to an adjective 
clause, and then to an adjective phrase :— 

1. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music. 

2. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three 
good things. 



no The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSOR 69. 

ANALYSIS. 

Direct ion.— Tell the kind of adverb clause in each of the sentences in Lesson 68, 
and note the different positions in which these clauses stand. 

Select two sentences containing time clauses; one, a place clause; two, degree; 
one, manner ; two, real cause ; two, reason ; two, purpose; two, condition; and two, 
concession, and analyze them. 



LESSON ?©* 

ANALYSIS. 

Direct ion.— Tell why the adverb clauses in Lesson 68 are or are not set off by the 
comma, and analyze those not analyzed in Lesson 69. 



LSSON 74, 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE— NOUN CLAUSE. 

Mints for Oral Instruction.— In Lessons 40 and 41 you learned that an in- 
finitive phrase may perform many of the offices of a noun. You are now to learn that 
a clause may do the same. 

Obedience is better than sacrifice = To obey is better than sacrifice = That men 
should obey is better than sacrifice. The dependent clause That men should obey is 
equivalent to a noun, and is the subject of is. 

Many people believe (hat the beech tree is never struck by lightning. The dependent 
clause, introduced by that, is equivalent to a noun, and is the object complement 
of believe. 

The fact that mould, mildew, and yeast are plant* \* wonderful. The clause intro- 
duced by that is equivalent to a noun, and is explanatory of fact. 

A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words. The clause intro- 
duced by that is equivalent to a noun, and is an attribute complement relating to 
peculiarity. 

Your future depends very much on who your companions are. The clause who your 
companions are is equivalent to a noun, and is the principal term of a jj/trase 
introduced by the preposition on. 

Questions on the Hints.— What offices have you learned that an infinitive 
phrase may perform? What several offices of a noun may a clause perform? Ex- 
plain and illustrate them. 



The Complex Sentence — Noun Clause. 1 1 1 

Analysis and Parsing. 
The noun clause may be used as subject, 

1. That the earth is round has been proved. 

That Expl ana t ion. —The clause That the earth is 

round is used like a noun as the subject of has 
\ . is ; ground been proved. The conjunction That* simply in- 

troduces the noun clause. 
This is a peculiar kind of complex sentence. 
{ has ° een P roved Strictly speaking, there is here no principal 
clause, for the whole sentence cannot be called a 
clause, i.e., a part of a sentence. We may say that it is a complex sentence in which 
the whole sentence takes the place of a principal clause. 

2. That the same word is used for the soul of man and for a glass 
of gin is singular. 

3. " What have I done ? " is asked by the knave and the thief. 

4. Who was the discoverer of America is not jet fully determined 
by historians. 

Explanation. — The subject clause is here an indirect question. See Lesson 74. 

5. W r hen letters were first used is not certainly known. 

6. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" smote the ears of the guilty 
Cain. 

7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem 
never solved by some. 

The noun clause may be used as object complement. 

8. Galileo taught that the earth moves. 

that 

earth ,! moves Explanation.— Here the clause introduced by 
that is used like a noun as the object complement 
of taught. 
Galileo . taught , 

9. The Esquimau feels intuitively that bear's grease and blubber 
are the dishes for his table. 

* " That was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun, used to point to the fact 
stated in an independent sentence; as, It was good; lie saw that. By an inversion 
of the order this became He saw that (namely) it was good, and so passed into the 
form/fe saw that it tvas good, where that has been transferred to the accessory clause, 
and become a mere sign of grammatical subordination."— C. P. Mason. 



112 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. 

11. It will ask of you, " What can you do ? " 

12. The peacock struts about saying, " What a fine tail I have !" 

13. He does not know which to choose. 

(Expand which to choose into an indirect interrogative clause.) 

14. No one can tell how or when or where he will die. 

15. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has any control 
over the current of thought in our dreams. 



LESSOM f% 

NOUN CLAUSE— CONTINUED. 
Analysis and Parsing. 
The noun clause maybe used as attribute complement. 

1. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed 
words. 

2. Tweed's defiant question was, "What are you going to do 
about it ? " 

3. The question ever asked and never answered is, ' ' Where and 
how am I to exist in the Hereafter ? " 

4. Hamlet's exclamation was, " What a piece of work is man ! " 

5. The myth concerning Achilles is, that he was invulnerable in 
every part except the heel. 

The noun clause maybe used as explanatory modifier. 

6. It has been proved that the earth is round. 



^ 



ground 

Explanation.— The grammatical subject It 

has no meaning till explained by the noun clause. 
It (y/\) . has been proved 

7. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply 
of blood to the brain. 

8. The fact that mould, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful. 






Noun Clause. 113 



9. Napoleon turned his Simplon road aside in order that he might 
save a tree mentioned by Caesar. 

Explanation,.— Unless in order that is taken as a conjunction connecting an 
adverb clause of purpose (see (7), Lesson 65), the clause introduced by that is a noun 
clause explanatory of order.* 

10. Shakespeare's metaphor, "Mght's candles are burnt out," is 
one of the finest in literature. 

11. The shortest and sweetest verse in the Bible is this: "Jesus 
wept." 

12. This we know, that our future depends on our present. 

The noun clause may be used as principal term of a 
prepositional phrase. 

13. Have birds any sense of why they sing ? 

birds . T/ave , sense 

^ \ Explanation. — W7uj they sing is 

they t sing an indirect question, here used as the 

WT principal term of a prepositional phrase. 

14. There has been some dispute about who wrote " Shakespeare's 




15. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole. 

Explanation.— By supplying of before that, the noun clause maybe treated as 
the principal term of a prepositional phrase modifying the adjective certain. By 
supplying of the fact, the noun clause will become explanatory. 

16. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and 
triumph. 

17. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength and valor 
of his slain enemy pass into himself. 

* A similar explanation may be made of on condition that, in case that, introducing 
adverb clauses expressing condition. 



114 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



lesson rs. 

COMPOSITION— NOUN CLAUSE. 

COMMA— KULE.— The noun clause used as attribute complement 
is generally set off by the comma. 

Remark.— Present usage seems to favor the omission of the comma with the 
clause used as subject or as object complement. See next Lesson. 

The punctuation of the explanatory clause is like that of other explanatory modi- 
fiers — see Lesson 34. But the real subject made explanatory of it is seldom or never 
set off. See next Lesson for the punctuation of explanatory clauses formally intro- 
duced. 

Direction.— Give the reasons for the use or the omission of the comma with the 
noun clauses iu the preceding Lesson. 

By using it as a substitute for the subject clause, this 
clause may be placed last. 

Example.— That the story of William Tell is a myth is now believed = It is now 
believed that the story of William Tell is a myth. 

Direction. — By the aid of the expletive it, transpose the subject clauses in 
Lesson 71. 

Often the clause used as object complement may be placed 
first. 

Direction.— Transpose such of the clauses, used as object complements, in the 
preceding Lesson, as admit transposition. Punctuate them if they need it. 

The noun clause may be made prominent by separating 
it, and inserting the independent clause between its parts. 

Example.— The story of William Tell, it is ?iow believed, is a myth. 
(Notice that the principal clause, used parenthetically, is set off by the comma. 
Direction.— Write the following sentences, using the independent clauses paren- 
thetically :— 

1. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up 
in Mexico in 1536. 

2. I am aware that refinement of mind and clearness of thinking 
usually result from grammatical studies. 

3. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as 
cheerily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace. 



Composition — Noun Clause. 1 1 5 

Direction. —Vary the following sentence so as to illustrate the five different kinds 
of noun clauses :— 
Model.— 1. That stars are suns is the belief of astronomers. 

2. Astronomers believe that stars are suns. 

3. The belief of astronomers is, that stars are suns. 

4. The belief that stars are suns is held by astronomers. 

5. Astronomers are confident that stars are suns. 

1. Our conclusion is, that different forms of government suit dif- 
ferent stages of civilization. 

The noun clause may be contracted by changing the 
predicate to a participle, and the subject to a possessive. 

Example.— That he was brave cannot be doubted = His being brave cannot be 
doubted. 

Direction.— Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the noun 
clauses to phrases : — 

1. That the caterpillar changes to a "butterfly is a curious fact. 

2. Everybody admits that Cromwell was a great leader. 

3. A man's chief objection to a woman is, that she has no respect 
for the newspaper. 

4. The thought that we are spinning around the sun some twenty 
miles a second almost makes us dizzy. 

5. She was aware that I appreciated her situation. 

The noun clause may be contracted by making the pred- 
icate, when changed to an infinitive, the objective comple- 
ment, and the subject the object complement. 

Direct ion.— Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the pred- 
icates of the noun clauses to objective complements, and the subjects to object 
complements : — 

Model.— King Ahasuerus commanded that Hainan should be hanged — 
King Ahasuerus commanded Hainan to be hanged. 

1. I judge that he is a foreigner. 

2. The Governor ordered that the prisoner should be set free. 

3. Many people believe that Webster was the greatest of American 
statesmen. 

4. How wide do you think that the Atlantic ocean is ? 

5. They hold that taxation without representation is unjust. 



I [6 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Direction.— Expand into complex sentences such of the sentences in Lesson 41 as 
contain an objective complement and an object complement which together are 
equivalent to a clause. 

A noun clause may be contracted to an infinitive phrase. 

Example.— That he should vote is the duty of every American citizen = To vote is 
the duty of every American citizen. 
Direction.— Contract these noun clauses to infinitive phrases :— 

1. That we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty. 

2. Every one desires that he may live long and happily. 

3. The effect of looking upon the sun is, that the eye is blinded. 

4. Caesar Augustus issued a decree that all the world should be 
taxed. 

5. We are all anxious that we may make a good impression. 

6. He does not know whom he should send. 

7. He can not find out how he is to go there. 



tmmn ?4. 

COMPOSITION— NOUN CLAUSE— CONTINUED. 

QUOTATION MARKS— RULE.— Quotation marks (" ") enclose 
a copied word or passage. 

CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— The first word of a direct quota- 
tion making* complete sense, or of a direct question introduced into 
a sentence should begin with a capital letter. 

Ileniark.—A direct quotation is one whose exact words, as well as thought, 
are copied ; as, Nathan said to David, " Thou art the man.' 1 '' An indirect quota- 
tion is one whose thought, but not whose exact words, is copied ; as, Nathan told 
David that he ivas the man. 

The direct quotation is set off by the comma, begins with a capital letter, and is 
enclosed within quotation marks— though these may be omitted. The indirect quota- 
tion is not generally set off by the comma, does not begin with a capital letter, and is 
not enclosed within quotation marks. 

A direct question introduced into a sentence is one in which the exact words 
and their order in an interrogative sentence (see Lesson 55) is preserved, and which 
is followed by an interrogation point ; as, Cain asked, " Am 1 my brother's keeper?" 
An indirect question is one which is referred to as a question, but not directly 
asked or quoted as such, and which is not followed by an interrogation point ; as, 
Cain asked tohether he was his brother's keeper. 



The Compound Sentence. 117 

The direct question is set off by the comma (but no comma is used after the inter- 
rogation point), begins with a capital letter, and is enclosed within quotation marks— 
though these may be omitted. An indirect question is not generally set off by a 
comma, does not begin with a capital letter, and is not enclosed within quotation marks. 

If the direct quotation, whether a question or not, is formally introduced (see 
Lesson 147), it is preceded by the colon ; as, Nathan's words to David were these : 
" Thou art the ■man.' 1 '' He put the question thus : " Can you do UP " 

Direction.— Point out the direct and the indirect quotations and questions in the 
sentences of Lesson 71, tell why they do or do not begin with capital letters, and 
justify the use or the omission of the comma, the interrogation point, and the quota- 
tion marks. 

Direction.— Ee-write these same sentences, changing the direct quotations and 
questions to indirect, and the indirect to direct. 

Direction.— Write five sentences containing direct quotations, some of which 
shall be formally introduced, and some of which shall be questions occurring at the 
beginning or in the middle of the sentence. Change these to the indirect form, and 
look carefully to the punctuation and the capitalization. 



LISSOM 71. 

ANALYSIS. 
Direction.— Analyze the sentences given for arrangement and contraction, in 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— Cromioell made one revolution, and Monk made 
another. The two clauses are independent of each other. The second clause, added 
by the conjunction and to the first, continues the line of thought begun by it. 

Man has his trill, but woman has her way. Here the conjunction connects in- 
dependent clauses whose thoughts stand in contrast to each other— the sentence faces. 
so to speak, half way about on but. 

The Tudors xoere despotic, or history belies them. The independent clauses, con- 
nected by or, present thoughts between which you may choose, but either, accepted, 
excludes the other. 

The ground is wet, therefore it has rained. Here the inferred fact, the rainini 
really stands to the other fact, the wetness of the ground, as cause to effect— the 
raining made the ground wet. It has rained, hence the ground is tvet. Here the in- 
ferred fact, the wetness of the ground, really stands to the other fact, the raining, as 
effect to cause— the ground is made wet by the raining. But this the real, or logical, 
relation between the facts in either sentence is expressed in a sentence of the com- 



iiS The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

pound form— an and is understood before therefore and hence. Unless the connecting 
word expresses the dependence of one of the clauses, the grammarian regards them 
both as independent. 

Temperance promotes health, intemperance destroys it. Here the independent 
clauses are joined to each other by their very position in the sentence— connected 
without any conjunction. This kind of connection is common. 

Sentences made up of independent clauses we call Compound Sentences. , 

Questions on the Hints.— What is an independent clause? Hoiv are the clauses 

in the several sentences given related in thought? Explain the several relations. 
What relation to each other have the facts in the clauses which (he words " hence " and 
"therefore" connect? What conjunction is understood before these words? What 
t/ien must be the clauses? What does the connecting word do ? Must clauses always 
have a connecting word? How else may they be connected ? Illustrate. What is a 
compound sentence ? 

DEFINITION. — A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a 
subject and its predicate. 

DEFINITION. — A Dependent Clause is one used as an adjec- 
tive, an adverb, or a noun. 

DEFINITION.— An Independent Clause is one not dependent 
on another clause. 

DEFINITION.— A Simple Sentence is one that contains but 
one subject and one predicate, either of which may be compound. 

DEFINITION. — A Complex Sentence is one composed of an in- 
dependent clause and one or more dependent clauses. 

DEFINITION. — A Compound Sentence is one composed of 
two or more independent clauses. 

Analysis and Parsing. 
Independent Clauses in the same line of thought. 
1. Light has spread, and bayonets think. 
Light , 7ias spread Explanation. — The clauses are of equal rank, find so 

H " the lines on which they stand are shaded alike, arid the 

j , line connecting them is not slanting. As one entire clause 

is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn 
bayonets . j thhik between the predicates merely for convenience. 

Oral Analysis .—This is a compound sentence, because it is made up of inde- 
pendent clauses. 



The Compound Sente?ice. 119 

2. Hamilton smote the rock of the national resources, and abun- 
dant streams of revenue gushed forth. 

3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have 
greatness thrust upon them. 

Independent Clauses expressing thoughts in contrast. 

4. The man dies, but his memory lives. 

5. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust. 

6. Eeady writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings 
on ready writing. 

Independent Clauses expressing thoughts in alterna- 
tion. 

7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age. 

8. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are 
they extremely warm in summer. 

9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably. 
Explanation. — Either helps or to connect. 

Independent Clauses expressing thoughts one of which 
is an inference from the other. 

10. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be 
raining. 

11. The man takes exercise, therefore he is well. 

Independent Clauses joined in the sentence without a 
conjunction. 

12. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand, the reindeer is the 
camel of the desert of snow. 

13. Of thy unspoken word thou art master, thy spoken word is 
master of thee. 

14. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. 

Explanation. —As it were is an independent clause, used parenthetically. As 
simply introduces it. 

15. Religion — who can doubt it ? — is the noblest of themes for the 
exercise of intellect. 

1G. What grave (these are the words of Wellesley, speaking of the 
two Pitts) contains such a father and such a son ! 



120 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



lissom r?: 

COMPOSITION— COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

COMMA AND SEMICOLON— RULE— Independent clauses, when 
short and closely connected, are separated by the comma; but 
when the clauses are slightly connected, or when they are them- 
selves divided into parts by the comma, the semicolon is used. 

Examples.— 1. We must conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer us. 

2. The prodigal robs his heirs ; the miser robs himself. 

3. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil ; but good is in 

the ascendant, and must triumph at last. 

Direction.— Punctuate the following sentences, and give your reasons :— 

1. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven 
over the green hill flies the inconstant sun. 

2. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents 
a disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind 
pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender emo- 
tions of the heart. 

3. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought. 

4. The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 

5. Occidental manhood springs from self-respect Oriental manhood 
finds its greatest satisfaction in self-abasement. 

Direction.— Assign reasons for the punctuation of the independent clauses in the 
preceding Lesson. 

Direction.— Using the copulative and, the adversative but, and the alternative or 
or nor, form compound sentences out of the following simple sentences, and give the 
reasons for your choice of connectives :— 

Eead not that you may find material for argument and conversation. 
The rain descended. Read that you may weigh and consider the 
thoughts of others. Can the Ethiopian change his skin? Righteous- 
ness exalteth a nation. The foods came. Great was the fall of it. 
Language is not the dress of thought. Can the leopard change his 
spots ? The winds blew and beat upon that house. Sin is a reproach 
to any people. It is not simply its vehicle. It fell. 

Compound sentences may be contracted by using but 



Composition — Compound Sentence. 12 1 

once the parts common to all the clauses, and compounding 
the remaining parts. 

Example.— Time waits for no man, and tide waits for no man = Time and tide 
wait for no man. 

Direction. — Contract these compound sentences, attending carefully to the punc- 
tuation : — 

1. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Baron Steuben 
fought for American independence. 

2. The sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the 
mind to benevolence, and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring 
autumn dispose the mind for contemplation. 

3. The Spirit of the Almighty is within us, the Spirit of the 
Almighty is around us, and the Spirit of the Almighty is above us. 

A compound sentence may be contracted by simply omit- 
ting from one clause such words as may readily be supplied 
from the other. 

Example.— H.B is witty, but he is virtgar = He is witty, but vulgar. 
Direction.— Contract these sentences :— 

1. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should 
not be the web. 

2. It is called so, but it is improperly called so. 

3. Was Cabot the first discoverer of America, or was he not the 
first discoverer of America ? 

4. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has 
justly been likened to him. 

5. It was his address that pleased me, and it was not his dress 
that pleased me. 

A compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a 
complex sentence without materially changing the sense. 

Example.— Take care of the minutes, and the hours will take care of themselves = 
If you take care of the minutes, the hours will take care of themselves. 
Direction.— Change these compound sentences to complex sentences :— 

1. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. 

2. Govern your passions, or they will govern you. 

3. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming. 



122 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

4. He converses, and at the same time he plays a difficult piece of 
music. 

5. He wan faithful, and he was rewarded. 

Direction. — Change one of the independent clauses in eaeh of these sentences to 
a dependent clause, and then change the dependent clause to a participle phrase :— 
Model.— The house was built upon a rock, and therefore it did not fall — 

The house did not fall, because it, teas built upon a rock = 

The house, being built upon a rock, did not fall. 

1. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered. 

2. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us. 

Direction.— Using and, but, and or for connectives, compose three compound 
sentences, each containing three independent clauses. 



iESSOl ?8 9 



COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES. 

Hints for Oral Instruction. — Sun and moon and stars ohey. Peter the 
Great went to Holland, to England, and to France. I came, I saw, I conquered. Here 
we have co-ordinate words, co-ordinate phrases, and co-ordinate clauses, that is, 
words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank or order. 

Leaves fall so very quietly. They ate of the fruit from the tree in the garden. 
Regnlus would have paused if he had been the man that he was before captivity had 
unstrung his sinews. Here just as the word modifier quietly is itself modified by pery, 
and very by so; and just as fruit, the principal word in a modifying phrase, is modi- 
fied by another phrase, and the principal word of that by another : so man, in the 
adverb clause which modifies xcould have paused, is itself modified by the adjective 
clause that he teas, and ivas by the adverb clause before captivity had unstrung his 
sinetvs. These three dependent clauses in the complex clause modifier, like the 
three words and the three phrases in the complex wofd modifier and in the complex 
phrase modifier, are not co-ordinate, or of equal rank. 

Mary married Philip; but Elizabeth would not marry, although Parliament fre- 
quently vrcjed it, and the peace of England demanded it. This is a compound sen- 
tence composed of the simple clause which precedes but and the complex clause which 
follows it — the complex clause being composed of an independent clause and two de- 
pendent clauses, one co-ordinate with the other, and the two connected by and. 

Questions on the Hints.— IMiat is meant by co-ordinate ivords, ])h?'ases. and 
clauses? Illustmte. What by words, phrases, and clauses not co-ordinate? Illus- 
trate, What is a complex clause ? Illustrate. 



Complex and Compound Clauses. 123 

Analysis. 
The clauses of complex and compound sentences may 
themselves be complex or compound. 

1. Sin has a great many tools, but a lie is a handle which fits them 
all. 

2. Some one has said that the milkman's favorite song- should he, 
" Shall we gather at the river?" 

3. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are decorated 
with the most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most ethereal 
wings, have passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of 
the earth. 

4. Still the wonder grew, that one small head could carry all he 
knew. 

5. When a man becomes overheated by working, running, rowing, 
or making furious speeches, the six or seven millions of perspiration 
tubes pour out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled. 

6. Milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the lan- 
guages, because one tongue was enough for a woman. 

7. Glaciers, flowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers ; 
the upper surface flows faster than the lower, and the centre faster 
than the adjacent sides. 

8. Not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of New 
England thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the cate- 
chism. 

9. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the 
frogs and worms that would injure the dikes. 

10. It is one of the most marvellous facts in the natural world that, 
though hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter 
of combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is 
destructive to fire. 

11. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by 
disaster, when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the 
Northwest had surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency 
hung, like a cloud, over the land, who first relit the fires of national 
glory, and made the welkin ring with the shouts of victory ? 



124 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



ilSSON 79, 

EXPANSION. 

Tavticiples may be expanded into different kinds of 
clauses. 

Direction.— Expand the participles in these sentences into the clauses indi- 
cated :— 

1. Simon Peter, having a sword, drew it. (Adj. clause.) 

2. Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Concession.) 

3. They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose.) 

4. White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, are cool in sum- 
mer. (Cause. ) 

5. Loved by all, he must have a genial disposition. (Eeason.) 
G. Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. (Condition.) 

7. Sitting there, I heard the cry of " fire ! " (Time.) 

8. She regrets not having read it. (Xoun clause.) 

9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around. 
(Ind. Clause.) 

Absolute 2>hr uses maybe expanded into different kinds of 
clauses. 

Direction.— Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses indicated :— 

1. Troy being taken by the Greeks, iEneas came into Italy. (Time.) 

2. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause.) 

3. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition.) 

4. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself. (Con- 
cession.) 

.5. There being no dew this morning, it must have been cloudy or 
windy last night. (Reason.) 

6. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. (Ind. 
Clause.) 

Infinitives may be expanded into different kinds of 
clauses. 

Direction.— Expand these infinitives into the clauses indicated:— 
1. They have nothing to wear. (Adj. clause.) 



Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. 125 

2. The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. (Degree.) 

3. Herod will seek the young child to destroy it. (Purpose.) 

4. The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on 
but. (Condition.) 

5. He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause.) 

6. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time.) 

7. He does not know where to go. (Noun clause.) 
Direction. — Complete these elliptical expressions : — 

1. And so shall Eegulus, though dead, fight as he never fought 
before. 2. Oh, that I might have one more day ! 3. He is braver 
than wise. 4. What if he is poor ? 5. He handles it as if it were 
glass. 6. I regard him more as a historian than as a poet. 7. He is 
not an Englishman but a Frenchman. 8. Much as he loved his wealth, 
he loved his children better. 9. I will go whether you go or not. 
10. It happens with books as with mere acquaintances. 11. No ex- 
amples, however awful, sink into the heart. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 
Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Whenever the wandering demon of Drunkenness finds a ship 
adrift, he steps on board, takes the helm, and steers straight for the 
Maelstrom. — Holmes. 

2. The energy which drives our locomotives and forces our steam- 
ships through the waves comes from the sun. — Coolce. 

3. No scene is continually loved but one rich by joyful human 
labor ; smooth in field, fair in garden, full in orchard. — Ruskin. 

4. What is bolder than a miller's neck-cloth, which takes a thief 
by the throat every morning? — Ger. Prov. 

5. The setting sun stretched his celestial rods of light across the 
level landscape, and smote the rivers and the brooks and the ponds, 
and they became as blood. — Longfellow. 

6. Were the happiness of the next world as closely apprehended as 
the felicities of this, it were a martyrdom to live. — Sir T. Browne. 



126 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

7. There is a good deal of oratory in me, but I don't do as well as 
I can, in any one place, out of respect to the memory of Patrick 
Henry. — Nasby. 

8. Van Twiller's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll 
of everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and 
streaked with dusky red, like a spitzenbcrg apple. — Irving. 

9. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is 
robbing the human race. — Mill. 

10. There is no getting along with Johnson ; if his pistol misses 
fire, he knocks you down with the butt of it. — Goldsmith. 

11. We think in words ; and when we lack fit words, we lack fit 
thoughts. — White. 

12. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the 
bottom of his subject. — Whately. 

13. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it 
will disgrace every man who is not. — Holland. 

14. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve 
are the men and women who bless their species. — Parton. 



LESS©! 64. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 
Analysis and Parsing. 

1. A ruler who appoints any man to an office, when there is in his 
dominions another man better qualified for it, sins against God and 
against the state. — Koran. 

2. We wondered whether the saltness of the Dead Sea was not 
Lot's wife in solution. — Curtis. 

3. There is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid 
the roof will come down, if you sweep off the cobwebs. — Ph iliips. 

4. Kind hearts are more than coronets, and simple faith than Xor- 
man blood. — Tennyson. 

5. All those things for which men plough, build, or sail obey 
virtue. — Sallust. 

6. The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for 
you ; but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that. — Holmes. 



Review Questions. 127 



7. Of all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these : "It 
might have been." — Whittier. 

8. I fear three newspapers more than a hundred-thousand "bayonets. 
— Napoleon. 

9. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is 
trodden on. — Kant. 

10. It is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand on 
the water or the sand. — Gladstone. 

11. A breath of New England's air is better than a sup of Old 
England's ale. — Higginson. 

12. We are as near to heaven by sea as by land. — Sir H. Gilbert. 

13. No language that cannot suck up the feeding juices secreted for 
it in the rich mother-earth of common folk can bring forth a sound, 
lusty book. — Loioell. 

14. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience 
what are human ills and what is human wrong. — Country Parson. 

15. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both great and 
small ; for the dear God who loveth us, he made and loveth all. — ■ 
Coleridge. 



LESS©! SS. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Lesson 59. — Into what may an adjective or a phrase be expanded? 
What is a clause ? Illustrate. What is a dependent clause ? An in- 
dependent clause ? A complex sentence ? Illustrate the three. What 
pronouns introduce the adjective clause? What double office have 
they ? What words may the clause modify ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 60. — Is the connecting pronoun ever omitted? Illustrate. 
Is the word which the clause modifies ever omitted? Illustrate. 
What are where, when, why, etc., introducing adjective clauses? Into 
what may they be changed ? Illustrate. 

Lesson Gl. — Give the Rule for the punctuation of the adjective 
clause. Illustrate restrictive clauses, and clauses not restrictive. 
Give the Caution. Into what may infinitive phrases be expanded ? 



128 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

Lesson 63. — Into what may adverbs be expanded ? Illustrate. 
What is an adverb clause ? What three things do the adverb clauses 
in this Lesson express ? 

Lesson 64. — What is meant by a clause expressing manner? Ex- 
pressing real cause? Expressing reason? What is the difference 
between real cause and reason ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 65. — What is meant by a clause expressing condition ? Ex- 
pressing purpose? Expressing concession? Show how the clauses 
expressing real cause, reason, condition, purpose, and concession come 
under the general head of Cause clauses. In the absence of the con- 
junction, what may yet, still, etc., do besides modifying? 

Lesson 66. — Give the Rule for the punctuation of adverb clauses. 
Illustrate the adverb clauses set off by the comma, and those which 
are not. 

Lesson 67. — In what different positions in the sentence may most 
adverb clauses stand ? Illustrate. 



LISSOM 8S, 



REVIEW QUESTIONS— CONTINUED. 

Lesson 68. — Show how an adverb clause may be contracted to a par- 
ticiple or a participle phrase. To an absolute phrase. To a prepo- 
sitional phrase having as its principal word (1) a participle, (2) an 
infinitive, and (3) a noun. In what other way may an adverb clause 
be contracted ? Show into what it may be changed. 

Lesson 71. — What offices did you learn in Lesson 41 that an infinitive 
phrase may perform? Show the five offices of the noun which a 
dependent clause may perform. What is said, in the foot-note, of 
that ? 

Lesson 72. — How may the clause following in order that, in case 
that, on condition that be regarded ? 

Lesson 73. — Give the Rule for the punctuation of the noun clause 
used, as attribute complement. For the noun clause used as ex- 



Review Questions — Continued. 129 

planatory modifier. What office has the expletive it f Where may 
the noun clause as object complement stand? How may it be made 
prominent ? How may the noun clause be contracted ? Illustrate the 
several a 



Lesson 74. — Give the Rule for quotation marks. For capital letters. 
What is a direct quotation? An indirect quotation? How do you 
write each ? What is a direct question ? An indirect question ? How 
do you write each ? Give all the particulars. When is a quotation 
formally introduced ? Illustrate. What is its punctuation ? 



LESSON 84, 



REVIEW QUESTIONS— CONTINUED. 
Lesson 76.— What is an independent clause ? How are the clauses 
which and connects related in sense ? Illustrate. Those which but 
connects? Illustrate. Those which or connects? Illustrate. How 
are the facts in the clauses which hence and therefore connect related 
to each other? What conjunction maybe supplied? How then are 
the clauses related to each other ? Must independent and dependent 
clauses always have a connecting word ? How else may they be con- 
nected? Illustrate. What is a compound sentence? Give all the 
definitions in this Lesson. 

Lesson 77. — When is the comma used between independent clauses ? 
When the semicolon ? Show the two ways mentioned in which com- 
pound sentences may be contracted. Into what may some compound 
sentences be changed? Illustrate. Show how some independent 
clauses may be changed to dependent clauses, and these to participle 
phrases. 

Lesson 78. — Are all modifying words, phrases, or clauses of equal 
rank ? Give examples of those which are, and of those which are not. 
Give an example of a complex phrase, a complex clause, a conqiound 
clause. 

Ijcsson 79. — Into what kinds of clauses may participles be expanded ? 
Absolute phrases? Infinitives? Illustrate all of them. What are 
some common elliptical expressions ? Expand them. 
9 



130 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 

To the Teacher. — If necessary, make a separate lesson of this. 
General Questions. — Name and illustrate all the offices which a noun 
may perform in the sentence. What are the several offices which 
a participle may perform ? Illustrate. What are the several offices 
which an infinitive may perform? Illustrate. What offices of the 
noun may a clause perform ? Illustrate. What are the several kinds 
of adverb clauses ? Illustrate. In what ways may the thoughts ex- 
pressed by independent clauses be related to each other ? Illustrate. 
What three parts of speech may connect clauses ? Illustrate. 

To the Teacher.— -It would, be well to exercise the pupils here in the synthesis of 
simple sentences into complex and compound, and the resolving of complex and 
compound sentences into simple. Any reading-book will furnish good material. 

Model.— In the desert a route through the sand is always preferred. In sandy 
tracts springs are more likely to be found. The sand presents a soft, dry bed. The 
traveller can repose upon it after the fatigues of the day = 

In the desert a route through the sand is always preferred, because in sandy tracts 
springs are more likely to be found, and because the sand presents a soft, dry bed on 
which the traveller can repose after the fatigues of the day. 

The breath of the ocean is sweet. The winds fill their mighty lungs with it. They 
strike their wings for the shore. They reach it. They breathe health and vigor along 
all the fainting, waiting hosts = 

The winds fill their mighty lungs toith the sioeet breath of ocean, and striking their 
wings for the shore, they go breathing health and vigor along all the fainting hosts 
that wait for it. 

How to turn complex and compound sentences into simple ones is here suggested, 
cf course. 

It might be well, before taking up "Parts of Speech Subdivided," to turn 
ever to " Composition," the fourth division, and exercise the pupils in the group- 
ing of sentences into Paragraphs, and Paragraphs into Themes. 



PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED. 



LESSOR 81. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— You have now reached a point where it be- 
comes necessary to divide the eight great classes of words into sub-classes. 

You have learned that nouns are the names of things ; as, girl, Sarah. The name 
girl is held in common by all girls, and so does not distinguish one girl from another. 
The name Sarah is not thus held in common ; it does distinguish one girl from other 
girls. Any name which belongs in common to all things of a class we call a Common 
Noun; and any particular name of an individual, distinguishing it from others of its 
class, we call a Proper Noun. The proper names, which in Rule 1, Lesson 8, you 
were told to begin with capital letters, are proper nouns. 

Such a word as wheat, music, or architecture does not distinguish one thing from 
others of its class ; there is but one thing in the class denoted by each, each thing 
forms a class by itself ; and so we call these words common nouns. 

Classes of Pronouns. 

In Lesson 8 you learned that pronouns are not. names, but words used instead of 
names. Any one speaking of himself may use 1, my, etc., instead of his own name. 
Speaking to one, he may use yon, thou, your, thy, etc., instead of that person's name. 
Speaking of one, he may use he, she, it, him, her, etc., instead of that one's name. 
These little words that, by their form, denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the 
one spoken of, are called Personal Pronouns. 

By adding self to my, thy, your, him. her, and it, and selves to our, your, and. them, 
we form what are called Compound Personal Pronouns, used either for empha- 
sis or to reflect the action of the verb back upon the actor ; as, Xerxes himself was the 
last to cross the Hellespont, The mind cannot see itself. 

If the speaker wishes to modify a noun, or some word or words used like a noun, 
by a clause, he introduces the clause by iclio, which, what, or that ; as, I know the 
man toho did that. These words, relating to words in another clause, and binding 
the clauses together, are called Relative Pronouns. By adding ever and soever 
to who, which, and what, we form what, are called the Compound Relative Pro- 
nouns u-hoever, tvhosoever, whichever, whatever, etc., used in a general way, and 
without any word expressed to which they relate. 

If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks for it, he uses 



132 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

xvho, which, or what ; as, Who did that ? These pronouns, used in asking questions, 
are called Interrogative Pronouns. 

Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words, pointing them 
out as near or remote; as, Is that * a man ? What is this? or by telling something of 
their number, order, or quantity ; as, None are perfect ; The latter will do : Much has 
been done. Such words we call Adjective Pronouns. 

Questions on the Hints.— What subdivision is made of norms? What is the 
distinction between common and proper nouns? What words may one use in speaking 
of himself ? Speaking to one ? Of one? What are they called and why ? What 
words may be added to some of them? Hoto are the compounds used? Nafne the in- 
terrogative pronouns. The relative pronouns. What is the double office of the relati ves t 
What maybe added to them? How are the compounds used? Name some of the 
adjective pronouns. Why so called ? 



DEFINITIONS. 

A Noun is the name of anything. 

A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all things of a 
class. 
A Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual. 

Remark,.— Two classes of common nouns— collective and abstract— it might be 
useful to note. A Collective Noun is the name of a multitude of things taken 
as one whole ; as, army, multitude, mob, jury. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality of a thing conceived as taken away, 
or abstracted, from that thing ; as, beauty, softness, prudence. 

A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

A Personal Pronoun is one that, by its form, denotes the 
speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. 

A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding 
word or words, and connects clauses. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question is 
asked. 

* Such words as this and that maybe called demonstrative pronouns; and such 
words as none, latter, and much, indefinite pronouns. 

"The difference between nouns and pronouns starts from the roots. Nouns, i. 0., 
common substantives and adjectives, are formed from verbal roots, and denote 
quality and attributes. Pronominal roots denote relations, and from them are formed 
substantive aud adjective words which indicate things by their relations. The de- 
monstrative roots are the most important of all.'"— Prof. F. A. March- 



Classes of Pronouns. 133 

An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of 
both an adjective and a noun. 

The simple personal pronouns are : — 
/, thou, you, he, she, and it. 
The compound personal pronouns are : — 
Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself and itself. 
The simple relative pronouns are : — 
Who, which, that, and what* 
The compound relative pronouns are : — 
Whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or what- 



The interrogative pronouns are : — 

Who, which, and what. 

Some of the more common adjective pronouns are : — ■ 

All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, every, few, former, lat- 
ter, little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, 
that, these, this, those, whole, etc.f 

The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pro- 
noun is used is called an Antecedent. ' 

Direction.— Point out the jironouns and their antecedents in these sentences : — 
Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met 
him. To lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and 

* As, in such sentences as this : Give such things as you can spare, many gram- 
marians call a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence as is seen to be a 
conjunctive adverb— Give such things as those are which you can spare. 

t But for the fact that such words as brave, good, etc., in the phrases the brave, the 
good, etc., describe— which pronouns never do— we might call them adjective pro- 
nouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives modifying nouns to be sup- 
plied. 

The is not always used with these adjectives ; as, for better or worse, in general, 
at random, in vain, in particular. 

Some adjectives preceded by the are abstract nouns; as, the grand, the sublime, the 
beautiful. 



134 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

his companions were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To 
lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, 
which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body. 

Who *(or whose and whom), which, and what are interrog- 
ative pronouns when the sentence or clause in which they 
stand asks a question directly or indirectly; they are relatives 
elsewhere. 

Direction.— Analyze these sentences, and oarse all the pronouns :— 
1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I myself know who stole 
my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard 
what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom 
the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and 
who said it ? 8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She 
saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. 10. Whatever 
is done must be done quickly. 



LESSOfi 8S, 

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. 

To the Teacher.— hi the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for correction, 
the pupils 1 books should be closed, and the examples should be read by you. To 
insure care in preparation and close attention in the class, read some of the examples 
in their correct form. Require specific reasons. 

Caution. — Avoid he, it, they, or any ether pronoun when 
its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat 
the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast 
the sentence. 

Direction.— Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their ambiguity :— 

Model.— The lad cannot leave his father ; for, if he should leave him, he would die 

= The lad cannot leave his father: for, if he should leave his father, his father would 

die. Lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends = Lysias gave his father 

this promise : " I will never abandon your (or my) friends." 

1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the book- 

* See Lessons 60, 61, 71, and 72 for further treatment of these words, and of when, 
where, whoever, whatever, etc., in adjective and noun clauses. 



Construction of Pronouns. 135 

seller lie told him it was a dry subject. 2. He said to his friend that, 
if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home. 

(This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you may 
suppose were the speaker's words.) 

8. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not, because he was so 
short. 4. Art can imitate nature in her graces, and even adorn her 
with graces of her own. 5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull 
had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that he should pay him for 
his loss. 

Caution. — Do not use pronouns needlessly. 

Direction.— Write these sentences, omitting needless pronouns : — 
1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother 
she followed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it 
mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let 
every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo 
having been lost, he gave himself up to the English. 

Caution. — In addressing one, do not, in the same sen- 
tence, use the two styles of the pronoun. 

Direct io n.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 
1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news ? 2. You cannot always 
have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thy- 
self last, and others will love you. 

Caution.— The pronoun them should not be used for the 
adjective those, or the pronoun what for the conjunction 
that. 

Direction.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 
1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail ? 
3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. 

Caution. — The relative who should always represent 
persons ; which, brute animals and inanimate things ; that, 
persons, animals, and things ; and what, things. The ante- 
cedent of what should not be expressed. 



136 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

Direction.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 
1. Those which say so are mistaken. 2. He has some friends 
which I know. 3. He told that what he knew. 4. The dog who was 
called Fido went mad. 5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke 
loose. 6. All what he saw he described. 7. The horse whom Alex- 
ander rode was named Bucephalus. 

Direction.— Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions. 



LESSOf) SF. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS— CONTINUED. 
Caution. — Several relative clauses relating to the same 
antecedent require the same relative pronoun. 

Direction.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 
1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of 
the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 2. He 
who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget 
him. 3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the 
stand last. 4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was 
the first mate. 

Caution. — When the relative clause is not restrictive, 
and could be introduced by and he, and it, and they, etc., 
who -.or which should be used, and not that. 

Example.— Water, which (= and if) is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, covers 
three fourths of the earth's surface. 
Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 
1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound 
of oxygen and nitrogen. 2. Longfellow, that is the most popular 
American poet, has written beautiful prose. 3. Time, that is a pre- 
cious gift, should not be wasted. 4. Man, that is born of woman, is of 
few days and full of trouble. 

Caution. — The relative that * should be used instead of 



* Some grammarians claim that the relative that should always be used in restric 
tive clauses instead of who or whicfi; others say that usually it should be. But all 
admit that modern writers do not observe this distinction. 






Construction of Pronouns — Continued. 137 

ivho or which (1) when the antecedent names both persons 
and things \ (2) when it would prevent ambiguity; and 
(3) when it would sound better than who or which, e. g., 
after same, very, all, the interrogative who, and adjectives 
expressing quality in the highest degree. 

Example.— Re lived near a, pond that was a nuisance. (That relates to pond 
—the pond was a nuisance. Which might have, for its antecedent, pond, or the whole 
clause He lived near a pond ; and so its use here would be ambiguous.) 

Direct Ion.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 
1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. 2. The chief 
material which is used now in building is brick. 3. Who who saw 
him did not pity him ? 4. He is the very man whom we want. 5. He 
is the same who he has ever been. 6. He sent his boy to a school 
which did him good. 7. All who knew him respected him. 

Caution, — The relative clause should be placed as near 
as possible to the word which it modifies. 

Direction.— Correct these errors : — 

1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is dili- 
gent. 2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 3. A 
dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. 4. A purse was 
picked up by a boy that was made of leather. 5. Claudius was canon- 
ized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. C. He 
should not keep a horse that cannot ride. 

Caution. — When this and that, these and those, the one and 
the other refer to things previously mentioned, this and these 
refer to the last mentioned, and that and those to the first 
mentioned ; the one refers to the first mentioned, and the 
other to the last mentioned. 

Examples.— IRgh and tall are synonyms : this may be used in speaking of what 
grows— a tree ; that in speaking of what doe? not grow— a mountain. Homer was a 
genius, Virgil an artist : in the one we most admire the man ; in the other, the work. 

Direction.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 
1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar ; tact, triumphantly ; this is 



138 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

complimented by the bench ; that gets the fees. 2. Charles XII. and 
Peter the Great were sovereigns ; the one was loved by his people ; 
the other was hated. 8. The selfish and the benevolent are found in 
every community ; these are shunned, while those are sought after. 

Direction.— Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four 
Cautions. 



L1SS0U SS, 



CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS— CONTINUED. 
Miscellaneous Errors. 

Direction.— Two of the sentences below are correct. Give the Cautions which 
the other sentences violate, and correct the errors :— 

1. He who does all which he can does enough. 2. John's father 
died before he was born. 3. Whales are the largest animals which 
swim. 4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress. 
5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the 
light. 6. He did that what was right. 7. General Lee, that served 
under Washington, had been a British officer. 8. A man should sit 
down and count the cost who is about to build a house. 9. They need 
no spectacles that are blind. 10. They buy no books who are not able 
to read. 11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. 12. Cotton, 
which is a plant, is woven into cloth. 13. There is no book which, 
when we look through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it. 
14. The reporter which said that was deceived. 15. The diamond, 
that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 16. The brakemen and the cattle 
which were on the train were killed. 17. Reputation and character 
do not mean the same thing : the one denotes what we are ; the other, 
what we are thought to be. 18. Kosciusko having come to this 
country he aided us in our Bevolutionary struggle. 19. What pleased 
me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the general appear- 
ance of the class. 20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers 
died when they were infants. 21. One does not know but that the 
future has these things in store for him. 22. Will you be able to sell 
them boots ? 23. I don't know but what I may. 24. Beer and wine 
are favorite drinks abroad : the one is made from grapes ; the other 



Classes of Adjectives. 139 

from barley. 25. There is one marked difference between shiners 
and trout ; these have scales, and those have not. 26. All the means 
that grace display which drew the wondrous plan. 27. Help thyself, 
and Heaven will help you. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentence 
Pdpe apples are healthful, unripe apples are hurtful, the adjectives ripe and unripe limit, 
or narrow, the application of apples by describing, or expressing certain qualities of the 
fruit. You learned, also, that t/ie, this, an, no, some, and many, limit, or narrow, the 
application of any noun which they modify, as apple or apples, by pointing out the 
particular fruit, numbering, or denoting the quantity of it. 

Adjectives which limit by describing or expressing quality are called Descriptive 
Adjectives ; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity 
are called Definitive Adjectives. 

Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application, (1) when they 
denote qualities which always belong to the thing named ; as, yellow gold, the good 
God, the blue sky; or (2) when they are attribute complements, denoting qualities 
asserted by the verb ; as, The fields were green, The ground was dry and hard. 

Questions on the Hints.— What is an adjective ? What are the two kinds 
called, and why? What is their difference? What and how do both limit? Define 
them. Do adjectives always limit the application of the noun ? Illustrate. 



DEFINITIONS. 

An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. 

A Descriptive Adjective is one that limits by expressing 
quality. 

A Definitive Adjective is one that limits by pointing out, 
numbering', or denoting quantity. 

The definitive adjectives an or a and the are commonly 
called Articles. 
A noun may take the place of an adjective. 

Examples.— London journal's, the New York press, silver spoons, diamond pin, 
state papers, gold bracelet. 



140 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

Direction. — Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives, below, and 
name such as do not limit :— 

Able statesmen, much rain, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains, 
Mansard roof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt 
diamond, the patient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument, 
moving spectacle, the martyr president, tin pans, eyes are bright, few 
people, less trouble, this toy, any book, brave Washington, Washington 
market, three cats, slender cord, that libel, happy children, the huge 
clouds were dark and threatening, the broad Atlantic. 

Direction.— Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives in Lessons 80 
and 81, and tell which denote color, motion, shape, position, size, or moral qualities. 



LESSOR ©0, 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Caution.— An and a are different forms of one. For the 
sake of euphony, an drops n and becomes a before letters 
having consonant sounds.* 

Examples.— An inkstand, a bag, a historian, a humble petition, an hour (h is 
silent), a unit (unit begins with the consonant sound of y), such a one {one begins 
with the consonant sound of w). 

Direction.— -Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 
A heir, a inheritance, an hook, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an 
uniform, an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero. 

Caution. — An or a is used to limit a noun to one thing 
of a class — to any one. The is used to distinguish (1) one 
thing or several things from others, and (2) one class of 
things from other classes. 

Explanation.— We can say a horse, meaning any one horse; but we cannot say A 
gold is heavy, This is a poor kind of a gas, William Pitt received the title of an earl; 
because gold, gas, and earl are here meant to denote each the whole of a class, and a 
limits its noun to one thing of a class. 

* Some writers still use an before such words as histofian, i/se, one ; but present 

usage favors a. 



Construction of Adjectives. 141 

The horse or the horses must be turned into the lot. Here the before horse distin- 
guishes a certain animal, and the before horses, certain animals, from others of the 
same class ; and the before lot distinguishes it from the yard or the stable — things in 
other classes. The horse is a noble animal. Here the distinguishes this class of animals 
from other classes. But we cannot say The man (meaning the race) is mortal, The 
anger is a short madness, The truth is eternal, The poetry and the painting are fine 
arts, because man, anger, truth, poetry, and painting are sufficiently distinguished 
without the. 

Direction.— Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors : — 
1. Tliis is another kind of a sentence. 2. Churchill received the 
title of a duke. 3. A Mil is from the same root as column. 4. Dog is a 
quadruped. 5. I expected some such an offer. 6. The woman is the 
equal of man. 7. The sculpture is a fine art. 8. Unicorn is kind of a 
rhinoceros. 9. Oak is harder than the maple. 

Caution. — Use an, a, or the before each of two or more 
connected adjectives only when these modify different nouns, 
expressed or understood. 

Explanation.— A cotton and a silk umbrella, means two umbrellas— one cotton 
and the other silk ; the word umbrella is understood after cotton. A cotton and silk 
umbrella means one umbrella partly cotton and partly silk ; cotton and silk modify 
the same noun — umbrella. 

Direction.— Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors :— 
1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 2. The Northern and 
the Southern Hemispheres. 3. The right and left hand. 4. A Pull- 
man and Wagner sleeping-coach. 5. The fourth and the fifth verses. 
6. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary. 

Caution. — Repeat an, a, or the before connected nouns 
denoting things that are to be distinguished from each 
other or emphasized. 

Direction.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 
1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. 2. We criti- 
cize not the dress but address of the speaker. 3. A noun and pronoun 
are alike in office. 4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and 
adverb. 5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe. 
6. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached. 

Caution. — A few and a little should be used when 



142 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

opposed to none; few when opposed to many; and little 
when opposed to much. 

Examples.— He saved a few things, and a little money from the wreck. Few 
shall part where many meet. Little was said or done about it. 

Direct ion.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors :— 
1. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy 
month. 2. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the 
night. 3. Few men live to be a hundred years old, but not many. 
4. Little can be done, but not much. 

Direction.— Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these Cautions. 



iSSOW 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES- 
CONTINUED. 

Caution, — Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them 
needlessly ; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. 

Direct ion. —Study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors:— 
1. It was splendid fun. 2. It was a tremendous dew. 3. He used 
less words than the other speaker. 4. The lad was neither docile nor 
teachable. 5. The belief in immortality is common and universal. 
6. It was a gorgeous apple. 7. The arm-chair was roomy and capa- 
cious. 8. It was a lovely bunn, but I paid a frightful price for it. 

Caution. — Place adjectives where there can be no doubt 
as to what yon intend them to modify. If those forming a 
series are of different rank, place nearest the noun the one 
most closely modifying it. If they are of the same rank, 
place them where they will sound best — generally in the 
order of length ; the longest nearest the noun, if they pre- 
cede it ; the shortest, if they follow it. 

Direction.— Study the Caution, and correct these errors: — 
1. A new bottle of wine. 2, The house was comfortable and large. 



Classes of Verbs. 143 



3. A salt barrel of pork. 4. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. 5. A 
fried dish of bacon. 6. We saw in the distance a precipitous, barren, 
towering mountain. 7. Two gray fiery little eyes. 8. A docile and 
mild pupil. 9. A pupil, docile and mild. 
Direction.— Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these two Cautions. 

Miscellaneous Errors. 

Direction.— Two of the expressions below are correct. Give the Cautions which 
the others violate, and correct the errors :— 

1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter. 2. The 
North and South Pole. 3. The eldest son of a duke is called "mar- 
quis." 4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him. 
5. An old and young man. 6. A prodigious snow-ball hit my cheek. 
7. The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. 8. The fat, two lazy 
men. 9. It was a fearful storm. 10. A white and red flag were flying. 

11. His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised him. 

12. He wanted a apple, an hard apple. 13. A dried box of herrings. 
14. He received a honor. 15. Such an use ! 16. The day was delight- 
ful and warm. 17. Samuel Adams's habits were unostentatious, 
frugal, and simple. 18. The victory was complete, though a few of 
the enemy were killed or captured. 19. The truth is mighty and will 
prevail. 20. The sceptre, the mitre, and coronet seem to me poor 
things for great men to contend for. 21. A few can swim across the 
Straits of Dover, for the width is great and the current strong. 22. I 
have a contemptible opinion of you. 23. She has less friends than I. 



LESS©! 82, 

CLASSES OF VERBS. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— You learned in Lesson 28 that in saying Wash- 
ington captured we do not fully express the act performed. Adding Corn icaUls, we 
complete the predicate hy naming the one that receives the act which passes over 
from the doer. Transitive means passing over, and so all verbs that represent an 
action as passing over from a doer to a receiver are called Transitive Verbs. If 
we say Cornwaltis was captured by Washington, the verb is still transitive ; but the 
object, Corrnvallis, which names the receiver, is here the subject of the sentence, and 
not, as before, the object complement. You see that the object, the word which names 
the receiver of the action, may be the subject, or it may be the object complement. 



144 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

All verbs that, like fail in Leaves fall, do not represent the action as passing over to 
a receiver, and all that express mere being or state of being are called Intransitive 
Verbs. 

A verb transitive in one sentence ; as, He writes good English, may be intransitive 
in another ; as, He writes well— meaning simply lie is a good ivrit-r. For a verb to 
be transitive an object must be expressed, or must obviously be understood. 

Washington captured Comwallis. Here captured represents the action as having 
taken place in past time. Tense means time, and so this verb is in the past tense. 
Cornwallis captured, the iv a r speedily closed. Here captured is, as yon have learned, 
a participle ; and, representing the action as past, it is a past participle. Notice that 
ed is added to capture (final e is always dropped when ed is added) to form its pact 
tense and its past participle. All verbs that form the past tense and the past participle 
by adding ed to the present are called Regular Verbs. 

All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by adding ed to the 
present, as, fall, fell, fallen • go, went, gone, are called Irregular Verbs. 



Classes of Adverbs. 

Early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently, etc., used to modify any verb— as uill 
go in I will go soon— by expressing time, are called Adverbs of Time. 

Away, back, elsewhere, hence, out, within, etc., used to modify any verb— as trill go 
in I will go away — by expressing direction ox place, are called Adverbs of Place. 

Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, very, etc., used to modify a word— as the 
adjective hot in The tea is very hot— by expressing degree, arc called Adverbs of 
Degree. 

Plainly, so, thus, well, no, yes* etc., nsed to modify a word— as spoke in ne spoke 
plainly — by expressing manner, are called Adverbs of Manner. 

Hence, therefore, why, etc., used in making an inference or in asking for the cause 
—as, It is dark, hence, or therefore, the sun is down, Why is it dark ?— are called 
Adverbs of Cause. 

Some adverbs fall into more than one class ; as, as, so, then. 

Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and so arc called Conjunc- 
tive Adverbs. 

Questions on the Hints.— What is the meaning of "transitive" ? What are 
transitive verbs? What are intransitive? Illustrate the difference between them. 

* Many grammarians say that no and yes (nay and yea) are independent when they 
answer questions. But they seem rather to modify words omitted in the answer but 
contained in the question ; as. Did you see him ? Xo = I did no (not) see him. That 
the form no is not now used in an answer except when the modified words are omitted 
does not argue against the position taken. Compare whether or no, condemned by 
some, but good English nevertheless. Otherwords change their form when the modi- 
fied words are omitted; as, My book is new, Mine is new. 

Yes (= certainly) may be explained in a similar way. Some make of these words 
a separate part of speech, and call them responsives. 



Classes of Verbs and Adverbs. 145 

7s the object of a transitive verb always an object complement? What are regular 
verbs? What are irregular verbs ? Illustrate the two classes. Give the divisions of 
adverbs. Illustrate (hem. Give some conjunctive adverbs. 



DEFINITIONS. 
A Verb is a word that asserts action, being", or state of being*. 

Classes of Vekbs with kespect to Meaning. 
A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object.* 
An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an object. 

Classes of Verbs with respect to Form. 

A Begular Verb is one that forms its past tense and past 
participle by adding eel to the present. 

An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense 
and past participle by adding eel to the present. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an 
adverb. 

Classes of Adverbs. 

Adverbs of Time are those which generally answer the ques- 
tion, When? 

Adverbs of Place are those which generally answer the ques- 
tion, Where? 

Adverbs of Degree are those which generally answer the 
question, To ichat extent ? 

Aelverbs of Manner are those which generally answer the 
question, In what way ? 

Aelverbs of Cause are those which generally answer the ques- 
tion, WJiy? 

Direction.— Point out the transitive and the intransitive, the regular and the 
irregular verbs in Lesson 14, and classify the adverbs. 

* The object of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, 
maybe the object complement or it may be the subject; as, Brutus stabbed Ccesar, 
Ccesar was 6tabbed by Brutus. 

10 



146 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



LESSON ©3, 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

Caution. — Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them 
needlessly ; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. 

Examples.— I could ill (not ill?-) afford the time. She is as tall as you are. Bhe 
is not so tall (not as in denying equality) as you are. Do a* mot like) I do. This mot 
this here or 'ere) sentence is correct. He wrote that (not how that) be had been sick. 
The belief in immortality is universally held (not universally held everywhere). His 
Dose was very (not terribly or frightfully) red. 



Direction.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors :— 

1. I returned back here yesterday. 2. He had not hardly a minute 
to spare. 3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peace- 
fully. 4. It was awfully amusing. 5. This 'ere knife is dull. 

6. That 'ere horse has the heaves. 7. He isn't as studious as his 
sister. 8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea. 9. He seldom or 
ever went home sober. 10. The belief in immortality is universally 
held by all. 11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. 12. This is a 
fearfully long lesson. 

Caution. — Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as 
to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the 
sound also. Seldom, if ever, should they stand between 
the to and the infinitive. 

Examples.— I only rowed across the river = 1 only (here an adjective^ and no one 
else, rowed, etc., or = I only rowed, etc., but did not swim or wade. I rowed only 
across the river = across, not vp or down, etc. I rowed across the river only = the 
river only, not the bay, etc. Merely to see (not to merely see) her was sufficient. Not 
every trotter is a Dexter (not Every trotter is not a Dexter). 

Direction.— Study the Caution and the Examples*, and correct these errors: — 
1. I have thought of marrying often. 2. We only eat three meals 
a day. 3. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 4. All is not gold that glit- 
ters. 5. He tries to distinctly speak. 6. He tries distinctly to speak. 

7. All that glitters is not gold. 



Construction of Adverbs — Continued. 147 

Caution. — Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two 
negative words so that they shall contradict each other. 

Examples.— No one has (not hasn't) yet reached the North Pole. No unpleasant 
circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended to affirrn). 

Direction.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors :— 
1. No other reason can never be given. 2. He* doesn't do nothing. 
3. He isn't improving much, I don't think. 4. There must be some- 
thing wrong when children do not love neither father nor mother. 
5. He isn't no sneak. 6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found. 

Caution, — Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives 
for adverbs. 

Examples.— I. The moon looks calm and peaceful (not calmly and peacefully, as 
the words are intended to describe the moon). 2. The moon looks clown calmly and 
'peacefully on the battle field (not calm and peaceful, as the words are intended to tell 
how she performs the act). 3. I cannot learn so long a (not such a long) lesson. 

Direction.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 
1. It was a softly blue sky. 2. The river runs rapid. 3. You 
must read more distinct. 4. It was an uncommon good harvest. 
5. She is most sixteen. 6. The discussion waxed warmly. 7. The 
prima donna sings sweet. 8. She is miserable poor. 9. My head feels 
badly. 10. He spoke up prompt. 11. He went most there. 12. He 
behaved very bad. 13. This is not such a warm day as yesterday. 

Direct ion.— Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four Cautions. 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS— CONTINUED. 
- Miscellaneous Erkoes. 

Direction.— Three of these sentences are correct. Give the Cautions which the 
others violate, and correct the errors :— 

1. Begin it over again. 2. This can be done easier. 3. The house 
is extra warm. 4. Most every one goes there. 5. The sparrow chirps 
constantly. 6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. 7. A circle can't 
in no way be squared. 8. This a remarkable cold winter. 9. The 
soldier died hard. 10. Feathers feel softly. 11. It is pretty near 
finished. 12. He isn't as stout as he was. 13. It is a wonderful fine 



Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



day. 14. He is some better just now. 15. Generally every morning 
wc went to the spring. 16. I wish to simply state this point. IT. He 
tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man. 18. The lesson was 
prodigiously long. 19. The cars will not stop at this station only 
when the bell rings. 20. He can do it as good as any one can. 21. Most 
every body talks so. 22. He hasn't yet gone, I don't understand. 
23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly. 24. That 
'ere book is readable. 25. I will not go but once. 26. I can't find out 
neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends. 27. They were 
nearly dressed alike. 28. The tortured man begged that they would 
kill him again and again. 29. The fortune was lavishly, profusely, 
and prodigally spent. 30. Improper motives were not suggested. 



LISSOM ©Is 

PREPOSITIONS. 
DEFINITION. — A Preposition is a word which introduces a 
phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal 
word to the word modified. 

Composition. 

give, below, a list of the prepositions in common use. Write 
hich each of these shall be aptly used. Use two or three of them 



Direction.- 


-We 


give, below, a 


short sentences 


in m 


hich each of t 


in a single sentence, 


if you wish :— 


Aboard, 




athwart, 


about, 




before, 


above, 




behind, 


across, 




below, 


after, 




beneath, 


against, 




beside, 


along, 




besides, 


amid, 




between, 


amidst, 




betwixt, 


among, 




beyond, 


amongst, 




but, 


around, 




by, 


at, 




down, 



ere, 


till, 


for, 


to, 


from, 


toward, 


in, 


towards, 


into, 


under, 


of, 


underneath, 


on, 


until, 


over, 


unto, 


past, 


up, 


round, 


upon, 


since, 


with, 


through, 


within, 


throughout, 


without. 



Composit ion — Prepositions — Contin ued. 1 49 

It emark.— Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, pending, re- 
garding, respecting, saving, and touching are still participles in form, and sometimes 
are such in use. But in most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them, 
and they express mere relations. 

But, except, and save, in such a sentence as All but or except or save him were lost, 
are usually classed with prepositions. 

The phrases aboard of, according to, along with, as to, because of (by cause of), 
from among , from between, from under, etc., instead of (in stead of), out of, over 
against, and round about may be called compound prepositions. But from in these 
compounds ; as, He craivled from under the ruins, really introduces a phrase, the 
principal term of which is the phrase that follows it. 

Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows them is 
omitted; as, He rode^a^, He stands above. 



LESSON S@. 



COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONS— CONTINUED. 

To the Teacher. — Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and so delicate 
in their shades of distinction, that a definition of them based upon etymology would 
mislead. A happy and discriminating use of prepositions can be acquired only by an 
extended study of good authors. We do, below, all that we think it prudent or profit- 
able to do with them. He should be a man of wide and careful reading who assumes 
to teach pupils that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain 
words. Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That gram- 
marian exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower 
than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast up.* 

Direction.— "We give, below, a few words with the prepositions which usually 
accompany them. Write short sentences containing these words combined with each 

* Take a single illustration: grammarians, in general, teach that between and betivixt 
" refer to two," are used " only when two ihings or sets of things are referred to." 
Ordinarily, and while clinging to their derivation, they are so used, but are they 
always, and must they be ? " A choice between two or more alternatives. "-r-Mulligan. 
"There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox." — 
V Estrange. " Between two or more authors different readers will differ." 1 — Campbell. 
"Read between the lines."— Matthew Arnold. "The Greeks left no spaces between 
their words."— Wilson. "Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory 
neck."— Bryan'. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our speech be filled if 
prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology. What simple and graceful 
substitutes could be found for the last phrase in these sentences : There were forty 
desks in the room with ample space between them ; We have distinguished between 
four things ? 



150 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

of the prepositions which follow them, and note carefully the different relations 
expressed by the different prepositions. :— 

Abide at, by, with; accommodate to, with; advantage of, over; 
agree to, with; angry at, icith ; anxious about, for ; argue against, 
with ; arrive at, in ; attend on, or upon, to ; beguile of, with ; careless 
about, in, of; communicate to, with; compare to, with; consists in, 
of; defend against, from; die by, for, of; different from; dis- 
appointed in, of; distinguish by, from ; familiar to, with ; impatient 
for, of; indulge in, with; influence on, over, with; insensible of, to. 



LES50W 97. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. 
Direction.— Do with the following words as yon were required to do above : — 
Inquire after, for, into, of; intrude into, upon; joined to, with ; 
liberal of, to ; live at, in, on ; look after, for, on ; need of; obliged 
for, to; part from, with; placed in, on; reconcile to, with; regard 
for, to; remonstrate against, icith; sank beneath, in, into ; share in, 
of, with; sit in, on, or upon ; smile at, on; solicitous about, for; strive 
about, for, with; taste for, of; touch at, on, or upon; useful for, in, 
to; weary of, in, icith; yearn for, towards. 

LISSOM 98. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS- 
CONTINUED. 
Caution, — Great care must be used in the choice of 
prepositions. 

Direction. — Correct these errors:— 

1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 3. They two 
quarreled among each other. 4. He is in want for money. 5. I was fol- 
lowed with a crowd. 6. He fell from the bridge in * the water. 7. lie 
fought into * the Revolution. 8. He bears a close resemblance of his 

* In denotes motion or rest in a condition or place; into, change from one condition 
or place into another. "When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get into 
it ; but he cannot do anything in it, until he has got into it." 



Construction of Prepositions — Continued. 151 

father. 9. He entered in the room. 10. He lives at London. 11. He 
lives in the turn of the road. 12. 1 have need for a vacation. 13. The 
child died with the croup. 14. He took a walk, but was disappointed 
of it. 15. He did not take a walk ; he was disappointed in it. 16. He 
was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 18. Place a 
mark between each leaf. 19. He is angry at his father. 20. He placed 
a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your conduct. 22. What 
is the matter of him ? 23. He broke his cane to pieces. 24. These 
plants differ with each other. 25. He boards to the hotel. 26. I board 
in the hotel. 27. She stays at the North. 28. He was averse from 
the war. 29. You make no use with your talents. 30. He threw him- 
self onto the bed. 31. They are hard to work. 32. He distributed 
the apples between his four brothers. 33. He went in the park. 
34. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to Toronto. 36. I agree 
with that plan. 37. The evening was spent by reading. 38. Can 
you accommodate me in one of those ? 39. What a change a century 
has produced upon our country ! 40. He stays to school late. 41. The 
year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 42. The 
Colonies declared themselves independent from England. 43. I spent 
my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by fishing.* 



mm 



CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS— 
CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Do not use prepositions needlessly. 

Direction.— Correct these errors :— 

1. I went there at about noon. 2. In what latitude is Boston in? 
3. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last 
Saturday. 5. He was born August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to see 
a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of a 
horse about (leading is transitive). 9. By what state is Kentucky 
bounded by ? 10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where 

* This sentence and many of the worst in this Lesson have been culled from 
school compositions. 



152 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

are you going to ? 12. They admitted of the fact. 13. Raise your book 
off of the table. 14. He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. 01 
what is the air composed of ? 10. You can tell by trying of it. IT. Where 
have you been to ? 18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They offered 
to him a chair. 20. This is the subject of which I intend to write 
about. 21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Give to me a 
knife. 23. I have a brother of five years old. 24. To what may Italy 
be likened to? 25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed. 
20. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answer- 
ing of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river. 

Caution. — Do not omit prepositions when they arc needed. 

Direction. — Correct these errors : — 

1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 3. I was 
prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is unworthy 
our charity. 0. What use is this to him ? 7. He was born on the 13th 
August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 9. It was 
the size of a pea. 10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. 

Direction.— Point out the prepositions in Lessons 80 and 81, and name the words 
between which, in sense, they show the relation. 



LESSOR 400. 



CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER 
CONNECTIVES. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— The stars look down upon the roofs of the 
living and upon the graves of the dead, but neither the living nor the dead are con- 
scious of their gaze. Here and, but, neither, and nor connect words, phrases, and 
clauses of equal rank or order, and some called Co-ordinate Conjunction*. 

Both clauses may be independent, or both dependent but of equal rank. 

At the burning of Moscow, it seemed as (it would seem) if the heavens were lighted 
up that the nations might behold the scene. Here as, if and that connect each a 
lower or subordinate clause to a clause of higher rank, and so are called Subordinate 
Conjunctions. One clause may be independent and the other dependent, or both 
dependent but of unequal rank. 

Questions on the Hints. —What may conjunctions connect t Illustrate. What 
are. co-ordinate conjunction*? May they connect dependent clauses f What are 
subordinate conjunctions f Why so called f Illustrate the two classes. 



Classes of Conjunctions and other Connectives. 1 5 3 

DEFINITIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or 
clauses. 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions are such as connect words, 
phrases, or clauses of the same rank. 

Subordinate Conjunctions are such as connect clauses 
of different rank. 

Hemark.— Some of the connectives, below, are conjunctions proper ; some are 
relative pronouns ; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to 
their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon 
themselves, and connect the clauses. These may be called conjunctive adverbs. 

CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES. 

Copulative. — And, both . . . and, as well as* are conjunctions 
proper. Accordingly, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, like- 
wise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjunctive adverbs. 

Adversative, — But is a conjunction proper. However, neverthe- 
less, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, and yet 
are conjunctive adverbs. 

Alternative. — Neither, nor, or, either . . . or, and neither . . . 
nor are conjunctions proper. Else and otherwise are conjunctive 
adverbs. 

SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES. 
Connectives op Adjective Clauses. 
That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and whoever are relative 
pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and ichy are conjunctive 
adverbs. 

Connectives op Adverb Clauses. 

Time. — After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while, 
and whilst are conjunctive adverbs. 
Place. — Whence, where, and wherever are conjunctive adverbs. 

* The as well as in He, as well as I, went ; and not that in He is as icell as lam. 



154 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

Degree. — As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correlative 
with adjectives or adverbs. 

Manner. — As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an 
adjective or an adverb. 

Real Cause. — As, because, for, since, that, and whereas are conjunc- 
tions proper. 

Reason. — Because, for, and since are conjunctions proper. 

Purpose. — In order that, lest (= that not), that, and so that are con- 
junctions proper. 

Condition.— Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, pro- 
vided that, so, and unless are conjunctions proper. 

Concession. — Although, however, if (= even if), notwithstanding, 
though, and whether are conjunctions proper. Whatever, whichever, 
and whoever are relative pronouns used indefinitely. 

Connectives of Noun Clauses. 
If, lest, that, and whether are conjunctions proper. W7iat, which, 
and who are pronouns introducing questions; how, when, whence, 
where, and why are conjunctive adverbs. 

Direction!'— Study the lists above, and point out all the connective? in Lessons 
80, 81, telling which are relative pronouns, which are conjunctions proper, and which 
are conjunctive adverbs. 



LESSOR mL 

COMPOSITION— CONNECTIVES. 

Direction. — Write compound sentences whose clauses shall be joined by the 
connectives named in the three subdivisions of Co-ordinate Connectives. Use the 
conjunctive adverbs along with the conjunctions proper. See whether many connec- 
tives may not in succession join the clauses of the same sentence. 



LISSOM 402, 

COMPOSITION— CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. 

Direction.- Write complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by tlie con- 
nectives of adjective clauses, and by the connectives of adverb clauses of time, place, 
degree, and manner. 



Composition — Connectives. 155 



LESSON 103, 

COMPOSITION— CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. 

Direction. — Write complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by the con- 
nectives of adverb clauses of real catise, reason, purpose, condition, and concession, 
and by the connectives of noun clauses. 



CONNECTIVES. 
Analysis. 

Direction. — Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives, below, and what 
are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences : — 

As may connect a clause expressing manner, time> de- 
gree, cause, or reason. 

1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington. 

2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. 

3. It must he raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. 

4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing. 

5. Half -learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the 
hand. 

//"may connect a clause expressing condition, time, con- 
cession, or may introduce a noun clause. 

6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free. 

7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride. 

8. Who knows if * one of the Pleiads is really missing. 

9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on 
the wing. 

Lest may connect a clause expressing purpose or may in- 
troduce a noun clause. 

* Many grammarians say that «Y here is improperly used for whether. But this use 
of it is common in good authors in early and in modern English. 



156 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India. 

11. Watch and pray, lest ye enter into temptation. 

Since may connect a clause expressing time, cause, or 
reason. 

12. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas. 

13. Many thousand years have gone by, since the Pyramids were 
built. 

14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were persecuted. 



L1SS0W IDS, 

CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. 

ANALYSIS. 
Direction.— Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives, below, and what 
are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences :— 

That may introduce a noun clause or an adjective clause, 
or connect a clause expressing degree, cause, or purpose. 

1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men. 

2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii 
were buried. 

3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may 
harden it. 

4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle. 

5. We never tell our secrets to people that pump for them. 

When may connect a clause expressing time, cause, con- 
dition, an adjective clause, a noun clause, or co-ordinate 
clauses. 

G. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses. 

7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns. 

8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present. 

9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question. 



Connectives — Continued. 1 5 7 

10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common 
people ? 

11. The dial instituted a formal inquiry, when hands, wheels, and 
weights protested their innocence. 

Where may connect a clause expressing place, an adjec- 
tive clause, or a noun clause. 

12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried. 

13. Where Moses was buried is still a question. 

14. No one has been where Moses was buried. 

While may connect a clause expressing time or conces- 
sion, or may connect co-ordinate clauses. 

15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a man of talents. 

16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt. 

17. While Charles I. had many excellent traits, he was a bad king. 



CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 

Direction. — Use the appropriate connectives, and change these compound sen- 
tences to complex without changing the meaning, and then analyze them :— 

Let one dependent clause he an adjective clause ; let three express cause ; five, 
condition ; and two, concession. 

1. Csesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain hare 
had it. 

2. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it 
becomes carnage. 

3. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee. 

4. You must eat, or you will die. 

5. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom. 

6. Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go 
and kiss dead Caesar's wounds. 

7. Men are carrying umbrellas ; it is raining. 

8. Have ye brave sons ? look in the next fierce brawl to see them 
die. 



158 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

9. The Senate knows this, the Consul sees it, and yet the traitor 
lives. 

10. Take away the grandeur of his cause, and "Washington is a 
rebel instead of the purest of patriots. 

11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon. 

Direction.— Two of the dependent clauses, below, express condition, and three 
concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before each, and then analyze the 
sentences :— 

12. Should we fail, it can be no worse for us. 

13. Had the Plantagenets succeeded in France, there would never 
have been an England. 

14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him. 

15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader. 

1G. "Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moment, more frigates 
would be found written on my heart." 



UE5S0N W, 

CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES. 

Caution. — Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs 
may stand in correlation with other words. And may be 
accompanied by both ; as by as, by so, or by such; but (but 
also and but likewise) by not only ; if by then; nor by 
neither ; or by either or by whether ; that by so ; the by 
the ; though by yet; when by then; and where by there. 

Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and 
stand where they belong. 

Examples.— Burr was as (not so in affirming equality) bad a man as Arnold. Burr 
was not so (not as in denying equality) bad a man as Arnold. Give me neither riches 
nor (not or) poverty. I cannot find either my book or (not nor) my hat. Dogs not 
only bark (not not, only dogs bark) but also bite. Nol only doga (not do'js not only) 
bark but wolves also. lie was neither (not neither was) rich nor poor. 

Direct ion. —Study the Caution, and correct these errors:— 
1. He not only gave me advice, but also money. 2. A theatrical 
part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a dissimulation 



Construction of Connectives. 159 

of my real sentiments. 3. She not only dressed richly but tastefully. 
4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New 
York. 5. The elm is not as tall as the pine. 6. Not only he is suc- 
cessful, but he deserves to succeed. 7. There was nothing either 
strange nor interesting. 8. The moon is not as large as the sun, nor is 
it as bright. 

Caution. — Choose apt connectives, but do not use them 
needlessly or instead of other parts of speech. 

Examples. — Seldom, if (not or) ever, should an adverb stand between to and the 
infinitive. I will try to (not and) do better next time. No one can deny that (not 
but) he has money. A harrow is drawn over the ground, which (not and ivhich) covers 
the seed. "Who doubts that (not but that) Napoleon lived? The doctor had scarcely 
left when (not but) a patient called. He has no love for his father or (not nor) for his 
mother (the negative no is felt throughout the sentence, and need not be repeated 
by nor). He was not well, nor (not or) was he sick {not is expended in the first 
clause ; nor is needed to make the second clause negative). 

Direction.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors :— 
1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other 
poets, is tenderness. 2. Try and see how well you can recite this les- 
son. 3. Who can doubt but that there is a God ? 4. No one can eat 
nor drink while he is talking. 5. He seldom or ever went to church. 
6. No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season. 

Caution. — Else, other, otherwise, rather, and adjectives 
and adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed 
by than. But else, other, and more, implying something 
additional, but not different, in kind, may be followed by 
out or besides. 

Examples.— A diamond is nothing else than carbon. Junius was no other than 
Sir Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk otherwise than on crutches. Americans 
would rather travel than stay at home. I rose earlier than I meant to. He can con- 
verse on other topics besides politics. 

Direction.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 
1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 2. The 
moon is something else but green cheese. 3. Cornwallis could not do 
otherwise but surrender. 4. It was no other but the President. 5. He 
no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran. 



160 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

Caution. — Two or more connected words or phrases re- 
ferring to another word or phrase should each make good 
sense with it. 

JExamjyles.—L have always (add said) and still do say that labor is honorable. 

Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add lived) or is now alive. The 

boy is stronger than his sister, but not so tall. 
Direction.— Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 
1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful as iron. 2. Gold is not so useful, 

but heavier than iron. 3. This is as valuable, if not more so, than 

that. 4. Faithful boys have always and always will learn the lessons. 

5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 6. This 

dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be 

published. 



LISSOM 108, 



MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. 
Direction.— Correct these errors, telling what Caution each violates :— 
1. Carthage and Rome were rival powers : this city in Africa, and 
that in Europe ; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean, 
the other on the southern. 2. The right and left lung were diseased. 
3. The right and the left lungs were diseased. 4. My friend has sailed 
for Europe, who was here yesterday. 5. There are some men which 
are always young. 6. I cannot think but what God is good. 7. Thim- 
bles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle. 8. A 
told B that he was his best friend. 9. Them scissors are very 
dull. 10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada. 
11. The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked 
up insensible, died. 12. The eye and ear have different offices. 13. I 
only laugh when I feel like it. 14. This is the same man who called 
yesterday. 15. He was an humble man. 16. He was thrown forward 
onto his face. 17. A knows more, but does not talk as well as, B. 
18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price. 19. At what 
wharf does the boat stop at ? 20. The music sounded harshly. 21. He 
would neither go himself or send anybody. 22. It isn't but a short 
distance. 23. The butter is splendid. 24 The boy was graceful and 



Various Uses of What, That, and But. 161 

tall. 25. He hasn't, I don't suppose, laid by much. 26. One would 
rather have few friends than a few friends. 27. He is outrageously 
proud. 28. Not only the boy skated, but he enjoyed it. ,°9. He is 
not as brave as he is reckless. 30. Who doubts but what two and two 
are four? 31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt 
water. 32. The problem was difficult to exactly understand. 33. It 
was the length of your finger. 34. He bought a condensed can of milk. 
35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. 36. The 
death is inevitable. 37. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress. 



LESSON I0S. 

VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT. 

Wliat may be used as a relative pronoun, an interrogative 
pronoun, a definitive adjective, an advert, and an inter- 
jection. 

Examples.— Re did what was right. What did lie say? What man is happy 
with the toothache ? What with confinement and what with bad diet, the prisoner 
found himself reduced to a skeleton (here what— partly, and modifies the phrase 
following it). What/ you a lion? 

That may be used as a relative pronoun, an adjective 
pronoun, a definitive adjective, a conjunction, and a con- 
junctive adverb". 

Examples.— Re that does a good deed is instantly ennobled. That is heroism. 
That man is a hero. We eat that we may live. It was so cold that the mercury 
froze. 

But may be used as a conjunction, an advert, an adjec- 
tive, and & preposition. 

Examples — The ostrich is a bird, b>/t (adversative conjunction) it cannot fly. 
Not a sparrow falls but (= unless— subordinate conjunction) God wills it. He was all 
but (conjunction or preposition) dead (a contraction of these two contradictory state- 
ments : He was all dead, but he was not dead ; or of this : He was all (anything in that 
line) except (the climax) dead). No man is so wicked but (conjunctive adverb) he 
loves virtue = No man is wicked to that degree in which he loves not virtue— so = to 
that degree, but — in tvhich not. We meet but (adverb = only) to part. Life is but 
11 



1 62 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

(adjective = only) a dream. All but (preposition = except) him had fled. The tears 
of love were hopeless but (preposition = except) for thee. I cannot but remember = I 
cannot do anything but (preposition = except) remember. There is no fireside but 
[(but = except) the one which} has one vacant chair (but is here called by some a nega- 
tive relative equalling that not, and making the sentence = There is no fireside that 
has not one vacant chair). 

Direction.— Study the principles and examples given above ; point out the exact 
use of what, that, and but in these sentences, and then analyze the sentences. 

1. He did nothing but laugh. 2. It was once supposed that crys- 
tal is ice frozen so hard that it can not be thawed. 3. What love 
equals a mother's ? 4. There is nobody here but I. 5. The fine arts 
were all but proscribed. 6. There's not a breeze but whispers of 
thy name. 7. The longest life is but a day. 8. What if the bee love 
not these barren boughs ? 9. That life is long which answers life's 
great end. 10. What ! I the weaker vessel ? 11. Whom should I obey 
but thee ? 12. What by industry and what by economy, he had amassed 
a fortune. 13. I long ago found that out. 14. One should not always 
eat what he likes. 15. There's not a white hair on your face but 
should have its effect of gravity. 16. It was a look that, but for its 
quiet, would have seemed disdain. 17. He came but to return. 



LESSON MO, 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 
Lesson 85.— Define a noun. What is the distinction between a 
common and a proper noun ? Why is music a common noun ? What 
is a collective noun? An abstract noun? What are the classes of 
pronouns ? Define them. What is an antecedent ? 

Lesson 86.— Give and illustrate the five Cautions in this Lesson, re- 
lating to the construction of pronouns. Give violations of them, and 
correct them. 

Lesson 87. — Give and illustrate the four Cautions in this Lesson, 
relating to the construction of pronouns. Give violations of them, 
and correct them. 



Review Questions, 163 

Lesson 89. — Define an adjective. "What two classes are there? 
Define them. What adjectives do not limit ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 90. — Give and illustrate the five Cautions in this Lesson, re- 
lating to the construction of adjectives. Give violations of them, and 
correct them. 

Lesson 91. — Give and illustrate the two Cautions in this Lesson, re- 
lating to the construction of adjectives. Give violations of them, and 
correct them. 

Lesson 92. — Define a verb. What are transitive verbs ? Intransi- 
tive? Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and 
the object complement ? What are regular verbs ? Irregular ? Illus- 
trate. What are the several classes of adverbs ? Define them. What 
is a conjunctive adverb ? 

Lesson 93. — Give and illustrate the four Cautions in this Lesson, 
relating to the construction of adverbs. Give violations of them, and 
correct them. 



LEiS©W m. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS— CONTINUED. 

Lesson 95. — Define a preposition. What are some of the common 
prepositions ? What is said of some ending in ing f Of out, except, 
and save ? Of certain compound prepositions ? When do prepositions 
become adverbs? 

Lesson 98. — Give and illustrate the Caution in this Lesson, as to 
the choice of prepositions. Give violations of it, and correct them. 
What, in general, is the difference between in and into ? 

Lesson 99. — Give and illustrate the two Cautions in this Lesson, re- 
lating to the use of prepositions. Give violations of them, and correct 
them. 

Lesson 100. — Define a conjunction. What are the two great classes 
of conjunctions, and what is their difference ? What other parts of 
speech besides conjunctions connect ? What are adverbs that connect 



164 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

called ? Into wliat three classes are co-ordinate connectives subdivided ? 
What are some of the conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of 
each class ? What three kinds of clauses are connected by subordinate 
connectives ? The connectives of adverb clauses subdivide into what 
classes ? Give the leading connective of each class. 

Lesson 104. — What different kinds of clauses may as connect ? Iff 
Lest ? Since ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 105. — What different kinds of clauses may that introduce 
or connect? When? Where? While? Illustrate. 



107. — Give and illustrate the four Cautions in this Lesson, 
relating to the construction of conjunctions. Give violations of them, 
and correct them. 

Lesson 109. — Name the different offices of what, that, and but, and 
illustrate them. 



\ Questions. — Which parts of speech are subdivided ? Which 
are not ? 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS 
OF SPEECH. 



LESS©! 442. 



Hints for Oral Instruction.— You have learned that two words may ex- 
press a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. 
You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may be changed by simply 
changing its form. The English language has lost most of its inflections, or forms, 
so that many of the changes in the meaning and the use of words are not now marked 
by changes in form. These changes in the form, meaning, and use of the parts of 
speech we call their Modifications .* 

* Those grammarians who attempt to restrict number, case, mode, etc., — what we 
here call Modifications— to form, find themselves within bounds which they con- 
tinually overleap. They define number, for instance, as a, form, or inflection, and yet 
speak of nouns "plural in form but singular in sense, 1 ' or "singular in form but 
plural in sense ; " that is, if you construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form 
but singular or -plural form, in sense. They tell you that case is a form, and yet insist 
that nouns have three cases, though only two forms ; and speak of the nominative and 
the objective case of the noun, " although in fact the two cases are always the same in 
form "—the two forms always the same inform! 

On the other hand, those who make what we call Modifications denote only rela- 
tions or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms. For instance, they 
ask the pupil to " pronounce and write the possessive of nouns, 11 hardly expecting, we 
suppose, that the " condition "of a noun will be sounded or written ; and they speak 
of "a noun in the singular with a plural application " in which singular must be taken 
to mean singular form to save the expression from sheer nonsense. 

We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charj'bdis but to do what 
by the common use of the word wc are allowed; viz., to take Modifications with 
such breadth of signification that it will apply to meaning and to use, as well as to 
form. Primarily, of course, it meant infections, used to mark changes in the meaning 
and use of words. But we shall use Modifications to indicate changes in meaning and 
use when the form in the particular instance is wanting ; nowhere, however, recogniz- 
ing that as a modification, which is not somewhere marked by form. 



1 66 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns. 
Number. 

The boy shouts, The boys shout. The form of the subject boy is changed by adding 
an 8 to it. The meaning has changed. Boy denotes one lad ; boy* two or more lads. 
This change in the form and the meaning of nouns is called Number ; the word 
Joy, denoting one thing, is in the Singular Number; and boy*, denoting more 
than one thing, is in the Plural Number. Number expresses only the distinction 
of one from more than one ; to express more precisely how many, we use adjectives, 
and say two boys, four boys, many or several boys. 

Questions on the Hints.— JVJiai 'is form Or inflection? What i* ite function f 
Has our language lost many of its forms? What are Modifications? What is 
Number? What are the two numbers? Distinguish between them. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Modifications of the Parts of Speech are changes in their 
form, meaning, and use. 

Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which de- 
notes one thing" or more than one. 

The Singular Number denotes one thing". 

The Plural Number denotes more than one thing. 

Number Forms. 

RULE.— The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding to 
the singular. 

To this rule there arc some exceptions. 
When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with 
that of s, es is added to form another syllable.* 

* In Anglo-Saxon as was the plural termination for a certain class of nouns. In 
later English as was changed to es, which became the regular plural ending ; as, 
bird-es, cloud-es. In modern English, e is dropped, and 8 is joined to the singular 
without increase of syllables. But when the Bingular ends in an s-sound. the original 
eyllable es is retained, as two hissing sounds will not unite. 



Number Forms. 167 



Hemark.— Such words as horse, niche, and cage drop the final e when es is added. 
See Rule 1, Lesson 127. 

Direction.— Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and note what letters 
represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound of s : — 

Ax or axe, arch, adz, "box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, face, gas, 
glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz. 

Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es 
without increase of syllables. 

Direction.— Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — 
Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, motto, 
mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico, potato, tornado, volcano. 

Some nouns in o add 6' only. 

Direction.— Form the plural of each of the following nouns :— 
Canto, domino, duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo, 
piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero. 

(Notice that iu the following nouns o is preceded hy a vowel.) 

Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio. 

Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant add 
es without increase of syllables. Nouns in y after a vowel 
are regular. 

Memark.— Y is changed to i when es is added.* See Rule 2, Lesson 127. 

Direction.— Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — 

Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, f daisy, essay, fairy, 

fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, 

valley, vanity. 

Some nouns change / or fe into ves. 

Direction.— Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — 
Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, X 
thief, wharf, wife, wolf. 

* In old English such words as lady, fancy, etc., were spelled ladie,fancie. The 
modern plural simply retains the old spelling, and adds s. 

t U after q is a consonant. 

X Staff (a stick or support), staves; staff (a set of officers), staffs. The compounds 
of staff are regular ; as, flag-staffs. 



1 68 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

Some nouns in/ and fe are regular. 

Direction.— Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — 
Belief, brief, cliief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, 
reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif. 
(Nouns in ff, except staff, are regular ; as, cuff, cuffs.) 

Some plurals are still more irregular. 

Direction.— Learn to form the following plurals :— 

Child, children ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; man, men ; 
mouse, mice ; Mr. , Messrs. ; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; woman, women. 
(For the plurals of pronouns, see Lesson 124.) 



LISSOM M2* 



NUMBER FORMS— CONTINUED. 

Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain 
their original plural forms. Some of these take the English 
plural also. 

Direct ion.— Learn to form the following plurals :— 

Analysis, analyses ; antithesis, antitheses ; appendix, appendices or 
appendixes ; automaton, automata or automatons ; axis, axes ; bandit, 
banditti or bandits ; basis, bases ; beau, beaux or beaus ; cherub, 
cherubim or cherubs ; crisis, crises ; datum, data ; ellipsis, ellipses ; 
erratum, errata ; focus, foci ; fungus, fungi or funguses ; genus, 
genera ; hypothesis, hypotheses ; ignis fatuus, ignes fatui ; madame, 
mesdames ; magus, magi ; memorandum, memoranda or memoran- 
dums ; monsieur, messieurs ; nebula, nebulae ; oasis, oases ; parenthesis, 
parentheses ; phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii or radiuses ; 
seraph, seraphim or seraphs ; stratum, strata or stratums ; synopsis, 
synopses ; terminus, termini ; vertebra, vertebras ; vortex, vortices or 
vortexes. 

Some compound nouns in which the principal word stands 
first vary the first word ; as, sons-in-law. 



Number Forms — Continued. 169 

Direction.— Form the plural of the following words :— 

Aid-de-camp, attorney-at-law, billet-doux, commander-in-chief, 
court-martial, cousin-german, father-in-law, hanger-on, knight-errant, 
man-of-war. 

Most compounds vary the last word; as, pailfuls,* gentle- 
men. 

Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns: — 

Court -yard, dormouse, Englishman, fellow - servant, fisherman, 
Frenchman, forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, maid-servant, man- 
trap, mouthful, piano-forte, porte-monnaie, spoonful, step-son, tete-a- 
te"te, tooth-brush. 

Remark,.— The following nouns are not treated as compounds of man— add s. 

Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, Talisman. 

A few compounds vary both parts ; as, man-singer, men- 
singers. 

Direction.— Form the plural of each of the following nouns :— 
Man-child, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer. 

Compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a title 
form the plural by varying either the title or the name ; as, 
the Miss Clarhs or the Misses Clark ; but, when the title Mrs. 
is used, the name is usually varied ; as, the Mrs. Claries, f 

Direction.— Form in both ways the plural of the following compounds : — 
Miss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Brown, Master Green, Mrs. 
Lynch. 

A title used with two or more different names is made 
plural ; as, Drs. Grimes and Steele, Messrs. Clark and 
Maynard. 

* Pails full is not a compound. This expression denotes a number of pails, each 
full. 

+ Of the two forms the Miss Clarks and the Misses Clark, we believe that the former 
is most used by classical authors. The latter is now quite popular; but, except in 
formal notes, or when the title is to be emphasized, it is rather stiff, if not pedantic. 
Some claim that, when a numeral precedes the title, the name should always be varied; 
as, the two Miss Clarks. 

The forms, the Misses Clarks and the two Mrs. Clark, have but little authority. 



170 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

Direction.— -Put each of the following expressions in its proper form :— 
General Lee and Jackson ; Miss Mary, Julia, and Anna Scott ; Mr. 
Green, Stacy & Co. 

Letters, figures, and other characters add the apostrophe 
and s to form the plural ; * as, a's, 2's, — 's. 

Direct ion.— Form the plural of each of the following characters : — 
S, i, t, +, x, * t, 9, 1, i, 5, 3. 



LESSON «4. 

NUMBER FORMS— CONTINUED. 



Some nouns have two plur 

Direct ion.— Learn to form the follow 
be able to put each into a sentence :— 

f brothers (by blood), 
Brother, -j brethren (of the same 

( society). 

(cannons (individuals), 
Cannon, -j cannon (in a collective 

( sense). 

rdies (stamps for coin- 
ing), 

I dice (cubes for gam- 
ing). 

j fishes (individuals), 

I fish (collection). 

\ feet (parts of the body), 

I foot (foot-soldiers). 

(geniuses (men of ge- 
Genius, -j nius), 

(genii (spirits). 



•als differing in meaning. 

ing plurals; note the meaning of each, and 



Die, 



Fish, f 



Foot, 



{heads (parts of the 
body), 
head (of cattle). 
$ horses (animals), 
( horse (horse-soldiers). 
r indexes (tables of ref- 
erence), 
j indices (signs in al- 
^ gebra). 

( pennies (distinct coins), 
Penny, < pence (quantity in 
( value). 

(sails (pieces of can- 
■j vas), 
( sail (vessels). 

{shots (number of times 
fired ), 
shot (number of balls). 



Head, 



Horse, 



Index, 



Sail, 



Shot, 



* Some good writers form the plural of words named merely as words, in the same 
way ; as, the ifs and the and's. But the (') is here unnecessary. 

+ The names of several sorts of fish, as herring, shad, trout, etc., are used in the 
same way. The compounds of Jic/t, as codjh/t, have the same form in both numbers. 



Number Forms — Continued. 171 

Some nouns and pronouns have the same form in both 
numbers. 

Direction,.— Study the following list : — 

Amends, bellows, corps,* deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds, 
pains (care), series, sheep, species, swine, vermin, wages, who, which, 
that (relative), what, any, none. 

(The following have two forms in the plural.) 

Apparatus, apparatus or apparatuses ; gallows, gallows or gallowses ; 
heathen, heathen or heathens ; summons, summons or summonses. 

(The following nouns have the same form in Doth numbers when used with 
numerals ; they add s in other cases ; as, one pair, two pair, in paws, by scores.) 

Brace, couple, dozen, pair, score, yoke, hundred, thousand. 
Some nouns have no plural. 

(These are generally names of materials, qualities, or sciences.) 

Names of materials when taken in their full or strict sense can have no plural, but 

they may be plural when kinds of the material or things made of it are referred to ; 

as, cottons, coffees, tins, coppers. 

Direction.— Study the following list of words : — 

Bread, coffee, copper, flour, gold, goodness, grammar (science, not a 
book), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, marble, meekness, milk, mo- 
lasses, music, peace, physiology, pride, tin, water, etc. 

(The following were originally plural forms, but they are now treated as singular.) 

Acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences 
in ics), news. 

Some words are always plural. 

(They are generally names of things double or multiform in their character.) 

Direction.— Study the following list:— 

Aborigines, annals, ashes, assets, clothes, fireworks, hysterics, 
literati, measles, mumps, nippers, oats, f pincers, rickets, scissors, 
shears, snuffers, suds, thanks, tongs, tidings, trowsers, victuals, 
vitals. 

* The singular is pronounced kor, the plural korz. 

t Oat is sometimes used, but a grain of oats would be better. 



1 72 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

(The following were originally singular forms, but they are now treated as plural.) 
Alms (Anglo-Saxon, alinesse), eaves (A. S., efese), riches (Norman 
French, richesse). 

(The following have no singular corresponding in meaning.) 

Colors (flag), compasses (dividers), goods (property), grounds (dregs), 
letters (literature), manners (behavior), matins (morning service), 
morals (character), remains (dead body), spectacles (glasses), stays 
(corsets), vespers (evening service). 

(The singular form is sometimes an adjective.) 

Bitters, greens, narrows, sweets, valuables, etc. 

Collective nouns are treated as plural when the individ- 
uals in the collection are thought of, and as singular when 
the collection as a whole is thought of. 

Examples.— The committee zvere unable to agree, and they asked to be discharged. 
A committee was appointed, and its report will soon be made. 
(Collective nouns have plural forms ; as, committees, armies.) 



lesson «g. 

REVIEW IN NUMBER. 

Direction.— Write the plural of the singular nouns and pronouns in the following 
list, and the singular of those that are plural ; give the rule or the remark that applies 
to each ; and note those that have no plural, and those that have no singular : — 

Hope, age, bench, bush, house, loss, tax, waltz, potato, shoe, colony, 
piano, kangaroo, pulley, wharf, staff, fife, loaf, flag-staff, handker- 
chief, Mr., child, ox, beaux, cherubim, mesdames, termini, genus, 
genius, bagnio, theory, galley, muff, mystery, colloquy, son-in-law, 
man-of-war, spoonful, maid-servant, Frenchman, German, man-servant, 
Dr. Smith, Messrs. Brown and Smith, x , |, deer, series, bellows, mo- 
lasses, pride, politics, news, wages, sun-fish, clothes, alms, goods, 
grounds, greens, who, that. 

Direction.— Give five words that have no plural, five that have no singular, and 
five that have the same form iu both numbers. 



Number Forms in Construction. 173 

Direction.— Correct the following plurals, and give the remark that applies to 
each : — 

Stagees, foxs, mosquitos, dominoes, calicos, heros, soloes, babys, 
trioes, chinmies, storys, elfs, beefs, scarves, oxes, phenomenons, 
axises, terminuses, genuses, motlier-in-laws, aldermans, Mussulmen, 
teetli-bruslies, moutlisful, attorney-at-laws, man-childs, geese-quills, 
2s, ms, swines. 



LESS©! IIS, 



NUMBER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. 

The number of a noun may be determined not only by its 
form, but also by the verb, the adjective, and the pronoun 
used in connection with it. 

JEtemarh. — These scissors are so dull that I cannot use them. The plnralitj r of 
scissors is here made known in four ways. In the following sentence this, is, and it 
are incorrectly used : This scissors is so dull that I cannot use it. 

Direction.— Construct sentences in which the number of each of the following 
nouns shall be indicated by the form of the verb, the adjective, or the pronoun used in 
connection 'with it : — 

With the singular nouns use the verbs is, teas, and has been ; the adjectives an, one, 
this, and that ; the pronouns he, his, him, she, her, it, and its. 

With the plural nouns use the verbs are, were, and have been y the adjectives these, 
those, and tivo / the pronouns they, their, and them. 

Bellows, deer, fish, gross, means, series, species, heathen, pair, 
trout, iron, irons, news, wages, eaves, riches, oats, gallows, vermin, 
molasses, Misses, brethren, dice, head (of cattle), pennies, child, 
parent, family, crowd, and meeting. 

Direction. — Compose sentences in which the first four of the following adjective 
pronouns shall be used as singular subjects, the fifth as a plural subject, and the re- 
mainder both as singular and as plural subjects :— 

Each, every, either, neither, both, former, none, all, any. 



174 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS— GENDER. 

Hints for Oral Instruction. — The lion was caged. The lioness was caged. 
In the first sentence something is said ahout a male lion, and in the second some- 
thing is said about & female lion. The modification of the noun to denote the sex of 
the thing which it names is called Gender. Lion, denoting a male animal, is in the 
Masculine Gender; and lioness, denoting a female animal, is in the Feminine 
Gender. Names of things that are without sex are said to be in the Neuter 
Gender. Such nouns as cousin, child, friend, neighbor, naming things of whose sex 
you are ignorant, are either masculine or feminine. 

Sex belongs to the thing, and gender to the noun which names it. Knowing the 
sex of the thing or its lack of sex, you know the gender of the noun in English which 
names it; for in our language gender follows the sex. But in such modern languages 
as the French and the German, and in Latin and Greek, the gender of nouns naming 
things without reference to sex is determined by the likeness of their endings in 
sound to the endings of words denoting things with sex. The German for table is 
& masculine noun, the French, feminine, and the English,* of course, neuter. 

Questions on the Hints.— What is Gender? What nouns are in the masculine 
gender? In the feminine gender ? In the neuter gender ? Gender belongs to what? 
Sex belongs to what ? What in English does gender follow t In some other languages 
how is gender determined? Illustrate. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Gender is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
denotes sex. 
The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex. 
The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex. 
The Neuter Gender denotes want of sex. 

Gender Forms. 
Xo English nouns have distinctive neuter form*, but a 
few have different forms to distinguish the masculine from 
the feminine. 

* In Anglo-Saxon, the mother-tongue of our language, gender was grammatical, 

as in the French and German ; but since the uuion of the Norman-French with it to 
form the English, gender has followed sex. 



Nouns and Pronouns — Gender. 175 

The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in 
three ways : — 

1st. By a difference in the ending of the words. 
2d. By different words in the compound names. 
3d. By using words wholly or radically different. 
Ess * is the most common ending for feminine nouns. 

Direction,— Form the feminine of each of the following masculine nouns by 
adding ess :— 

Author, baron, count, deacon, giant, god (see Rule 3, Lesson 127, 
heir, host, Jew, lion, patron, poet, prince (see Rule 1, Lesson 127), 
prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor. 

(Drop the vowel e or o in the ending of the masculine, and add ess.) 
Actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, director, editor, 
enchanter, hunter, idolater, instructor, preceptor, tiger, waiter. 

(Drop the masculine er, and add the feminine ess.) 
Adventurer, caterer, governor, murderer, sorcerer. 
(The following are somewhat irregular.) 
Direction. — Learn these forms: — 

Abbot, abbess ; duke, duchess ; emperor, empress ; lad, lass ; mar- 
quis (Lat. marchio), marchioness ; master, mistress ; negro, negress. 

Ess was formerly more common than now. Such words 
as editor and author are now frequently used to denote either 
sex. 

Direction.— Give five nouns ending in er or or that may be applied to either sex. 

Some words, mostly foreign, have various endings in the 
feminine. 

Direction.— Learn the following forms : — 

Administrator, administratrix ; Augustus, Augusta ; beau, belle ; 
Charles, Charlotte ; Cornelius, Cornelia ; czar, czarina ; don, donna ; 
equestrian, equestrienne ; executor, executrix ; Francis, Frances ; 

* The suffix ess came into the English language from the Norman-French. It dis- 
placed the feminine termination of the mother-tongue (A. S. estre or istre, old English 
ster). The original meaning of ster is preserved in spinster. Er (A. S. ere), which by 
a change of the vowel becomes or, was originally a masculine suffix meaning man ; 
but it now generally denotes an agent without reference to sex ; as, read-er, sail-or. 



1 76 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

George, Georgiana ; Henry, Henrietta ; hero, heroine ; infante or 
infant, infanta ; Jesse, Jessie ; Joseph, Josephine ; Julius, Julia or 
Juliet ; landgrave, landgravine ; Louis, Louisa or Louise ; Paul, 
Pauline ; signore or signor, signora ; sultan, sultana ; testator, testa- 
trix ; widower, widow. 

In some compounds distinguishing words are prefixed or 
affixed. 

Direct ion.— Learn the following forms :— 

Billy-goat, nanny-goat ; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit ; cock-sparrow, hen- 
sparroAv ; Englishman, Englishwoman ; gentleman, gentlewoman ; 
grand-father, grand-mother ; he-bear, she-bear ; landlord, landlady ; 
man-servant, maid-servant ; merman, mermaid ; Mr. Jones, Mrs. or 
Miss Jones ; peacock, peahen. 

Words wholly or radically different are used to distinguish 
the masculine from the feminine. 

(This is a matter pertaining to the meaning of words rather than to grammar.) 

Direction.— Learn the following forms:— 

Bachelor, maid ; buck, doe ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ; friar or 
monk, nun ; gander, goose ; hart, roe ; lord, lady ; nephew, niece ; 
sir, madam ; stag, hind ; steer, heifer ; wizard, witch ; youth, damsel 
or maiden. 

The pronoun has three gender forms : — 
Masculine he, feminine she, and neuter it* 

Direction.— Give five examples of each of the three ways of distinguishing the 
masculine from the feminine. 



LISSOM MS. 

GENDER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. 
Gender as a matter of orthography is of some importance, 
hut in grammar it is chiefly important as involving the cor- 
rect use of the prononns he, she, and it 

* It, although a neuter form, is used idiomatically to refer to a male or a female ; 
as, It was John, It was Mary. 



Gender Forms in Construction. 177 

When a singular noun is used so as to imply persons of 
both sexes, it is commonly represented by a masculine pro- 
noun.* 

Example.— Every person has his faults. 

The names of animals are often considered as masculine 
or feminine without regard to the real sex. 

Examples .—The grisly bear is the most savage of his race. The cat steals upon 
her prey. 

Remark.— The writer employs he or she, according as he fancies the animal to 
possess masculine or feminine characteristics. He is more frequently employed 
than she. 

The neuter pronoun it is often used with reference to 
animals and very young children, the sex being disregarded. 

Examples.— When the deer is alarmed, it gives two or three graceful springs. The 
little child reached out its hand to catch the sunbeam. 

Remark. — It is quite generally used instead of he or she, in referring to an animal, 
unless some masculine or feminine quality seems to predominate. 

Inanimate tilings are 1- often represented as living beings, 
that is, they are 'personified, and are referred to by the pro- 
noun lie or she. 

Example. — The oak shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy mould. 

Remark.— The names of objects distinguished for size, power, or sublimity are re- 
garded as masculine ; and the names of those distinguished for grace, beauty, gentle- 
ness, or productiveness are considered as feminine. Personification adds beauty and 
animation to style. 

Direct ion. —Study what is said above, and then fill each of the blanks in the fol- 
lowing sentences with a masculine, a feminine, or a neuter pronoun, and in each case 
give the reason for your selection :— 

1. No one is so much alone in the universe as who denies 

God. 2. A person's manners not unfrequently indicate morals. 

3. Everybody should think for . 4. The forest's leaping panther 

shall yield spotted hide. 5. The catamount lies in the boughs to 



* When it is necessary to distinguish the sexes, both the masculine and the feminine 
pronouns should be used ; as, Each person was required to name his or her favorite 
flower. 

12 



178 Modifications of the Parts of Speech, 

watch prey. C. The mocking-bird shook from little throat 

floods of delicious music. 7. The wild beast from cavern sprang, 

the wild bird from grove. 8. The night-sparrow trills song. 

9. The elephant is distinguished for strength and sagacity. 

10. The bat is nocturnal in habits. 11. The dog is faithful to 

master. 12. The child was unconscious of danger. 13. The 

fox is noted for cunning. 14. Belgium's capital had gathered 

then beauty and chivalry. 15. Despair extends raven 

wing. 16. Life mocks the idle hate of arch-enemy, Death. 

17. Spring comes forth work of gladness to contrive. 18. Truth 

is fearless, yet is meek and modest. 

Direction.— Write sentences in which these words shall be personified, and rep- 
resented by masculine pronouns :— 

Death, time, winter, war, sun, river, wind. 

Direction. — Write sentences in which these words shall be personified, and rep- 
resented by feminine pronouns : — 

Ship, moon, earth, spring, virtue, nature, night, England. 

Caution, — Avoid changing the gender of the pronoun 
when referring to the same antecedent. 

Direction.— Correct these errors :— 
1. The polar bear is comparatively rare in menageries, as it suffers 
so much from the heat that he is not easily preserved in confinement. 
2. The cat, when it comes to the light, contracts and elongates the 
pupil of her eye. 3. Summer clothes herself in green, and decks 
itself with flowers. 4. War leaves his victim on the field, and homes 
desolated by it mourn over her cruelty. 



LESSON «9. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS— PERSON AND 
CASE.. 

Dints for Oral Instruction.— Number and gender, as yon have learned, are 

modifications affecting the meaning of nonns and pronouns— number being almost 
always indicated by form, or inflection ; gender, sometimes. There are two other 
modifications which do not refer to changes in the meaning of nouns and pronouns, 



Nouns and Pronouns — Person and Case. 



179 



but to their different uses and relations, these uses and relations not often being in- 
dicated by form, or inflection. 

1, Paul, have written. Paul, thou art beside tbyself . He brought Paul before 
Agrippa. In these three sentences the word Paul has three different uses, though, 
as you see, its form is not changed. In the first it is used to name the speaker ; in 
the second to name the one spoken to ; in the third to name the one spoken of. These 
different uses of nouns and pronouns, and the forms used to mark them, constitute 
the modification called Person. 1, thou, and he are personal pronouns, and, as you 
see, distinguish person by their form. I, denoting the speaker, is in the First 
Person; thou, denoting the one spoken to, is in the Second Person; and he, de- 
noting the one spoken of, is in the Third Person. 

Instead of / a writer or speaker may use the plural we ; and through courtesy or 
compliment it came to be customary, except among the Friends, or in the language of 
prayer and poetry, to use the plural you instead of thou. 

The bear killed the man. The man killed the bear. The bear's grease was made 
into hair oil. In the first sentence the animal, bear, is represented as performing an 
action ; in the second as receiving an action ; in the third as possessing something. 
Consequently the word bear in these sentences has three different uses. These dif- 
ferent uses of nouns and pronouns, and the forms used to mark them, constitute the 
modification called Case. A noun or pronoun used as subject is in the Nomina- 
tive Case; used as object complement is in the Objective Case; and used to 
denote possession is in the Possessive Case. 

Some of the pronouns have a special form for each case, but the possessive case of 
nouns is the only one that is now marked by a peculiar form. That you may see how 
cases and the forms, or inflections, to mark them have been dropped in English, we 
inflect below * a noun from the Anglo-Saxon and one from the Latin, the parent of 
the Norman-French. In English, prepositions have largely taken the place of those 
cases and case forms, and many think that by them our language can express even 
more exactly the many relations of nouns to other words in the sentence than these 
languages can by their cumbrous machinery of inflection. 



* The Anglo-Saxon cases are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and. 
instrumental ; the Latin are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and 
ablative ; the English are nominative, possessive, and objective. 



Anglo-Saxon. 
Hlaford, lord. 

Singular. Plural. 
Nom. hlaford, hlaford-as. 
Gen. hlaford-es, hlaford-6. 
Dat. hlaford-e, hlaford-«m. 
Ace. hlaford, hlaford-«*. 
Voc. hlaford, hlaford-as. 
Inst, hlaford-e; hlaford-i«m. 



Latin. 
Dominus, lord. 
Singular. Plural. 

Nom. domin-Ms, domin-i. 
Gen. domin-i, domin-o rt«m. 
Dat. domin-o, domin-i*. 
Ace. domin-ttm, domin-os. 
Voc. domin-^, domin-i. 
Ab. domin-o; domin-is. 



English. 
Lord. 

Singular. 
Nom. lord, 
Pos. lord-'*, 
Obj. lord. 

Plural. 
Nom. lord-.?, 
Pos. lord-s'j 
Obj. lord-s. 



i8o Modifications of the Parts of Speech, 

Questions on the Hints.— Is number always marked by form? Is gender f 
What is Person? Is the person of nouns marked by fo?-m? Is the person of pro- 
nouns f Illustrate. What are the th ret persons ? What may the speaker use instead 
of '"/" ? What do tve use instead of " thou "/ When is " thou " used? What are 
Cases? Illustrate. What are the three cases? What word* hare three form* to 
mark the cases ? What case of nouns is still marked by a peculiar form ? Wliat have 
taken the place of inflections in English nouns? 



DEFINITIONS. 

Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes 
the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. 

The First Person denotes the one speaking-. 

The Second Person denotes the one spoken to. 

The Third Person denotes the one spoken of. 

A noun is said to be of the first person when joined as an 
explanatory modifier to a pronoun of the first person ; as, 
7, John, saw these things ; We Americans are always in a 
hurry. * 

A noun is of the second person when used as explanatory 
of a pronoun of the second person, or when used indepen- 
dently as a term of address ; as, Ye crags and peaks ; Idle 
time, John, is ruinous. 

Direct ion. —Compose sentences in which there shall be two examples of nouns 
and two of pronouns used in each of the three persons. 

Person Forms. 
Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of words 
that have distinctive person forms. 

Direction. — From the forms of the pronouns given in Lesson 134, select and write 
in one list all the first person forms ; in another list, all the second person forms ; 
and in another, all the third person forms. 

* It is doubtful whether a noun is ever of the first person. It may be claimed with 
some propriety that, in the sentence I.John, saw these things, John speaks of his 
own name, the expression meaning I, and my name is John, etc. 



Nouns and Pronouns — Person and Case. 181 

Person is regarded in grammar, because the yerb some- 
times varies its form to agree with the person of its sub- 
ject \ as, / see, Thou seest, He sees. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its 
office in the sentence. 

The Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its 
office as subject or as attribute complement. 

The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its 
office as possessive modifier. 

The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its 
office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional 
phrase. 

A noun or a pronoun used independently is said to be in 
the nominative case. 

Examples. — I am, dear madam, your friend. Alas, poor Torick! He being 
dead, we shall live. Liberty, it has fled ! (See Lesson 44.) 

A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the 
same case as the word explained, or " is put by apposition 
in the same case." 

Examples.— The first colonial Congress, that, of 1774, addressed the King, George 
III. He buys his goods at StetvarVs, the dry -goods merchant. 

A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in 
the objective case. 

Example.— They made him speaker. 

A noun or a pronoun used as attribute complement of a 
participle or an infinitive is in the same case (Worn, or Obj.) 
as the word to which it relates as attribute. 

Examples.— Being an artist, he appreciated it. I proved it to be him. 
Mernark.— When the assumed subject of the participle or the infinitive is a pos- 



1 82 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

sessivc, its attribute complement is said to be in the nominative cast- ; as, Its b> big he * 
should make no difference. When the participle or the infinitive is used abstractly, 
without an assumed subject, its attribute complement is also said to be in the nom- 
inative case ; as, To be he * is to be a scholar, Being a scholar is not being an i<l/i r. 

Direction. — Study carefully the definitions and the remarks, above, and then 
compose sentences in which a noun or a pronoun shall be put in the nominative case 
in four ways ; in the objective in five ways ; in the possessive in two ways. 



LISSOM ^20, 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Direction. — Analyze the following sentences, and give the case of each noun and 
pronoun : — 

1. Not to know what happened before we were born is to be always 
a child. 

2. His being a Roman saved him from being made a prisoner. 

3. I am this day weak, though anointed king. 

Explanat ion.— Xouns used adverbially are in the objective case, because equiv- 
alent to the principal word of a prepositional phrase. 

4. What made Cromwell a great man was his unshaken reliance 
on God. 

5. Amos, the herdsman of Tekoa, was not a prophet's son. 

6. Arnold's success as teacher was remarkable. 
Explanation.— Teacher, introduced by as and used without a possessive sign, 

is explanatory of A mold's. 

* The case of lie in these examples is rather doubtful. The nominative and the 
objective forms of the pronoun occur so rarely in such constructions that it seems 
impossible to determine the usage. It is, therefore, a matter of no great practical 
importance. 

Some, reasoning from the analogy of the Latin, would put the word after the 
abstract infinitive in the objective, supposing/or, with some word, to be understood ; 
as, For one to be him, etc. Others, reasoning from the analogy of the German, to 
which our language is closely allied, would put it in the nominative. 

The assumed subject of the infinitive being omitted when it is the same as that of 
the principal subject, him, in the sentence I wish to be him — equalling I wish {me or 
myself) to be him— is the proper form, being in the same case as / /n . In the sen- 
tence I have no doubt of his being a scholar, his is used instead of him to prevent 
ambiguity ; and some would put scholar in the same case as him. For a similar 
reason scholar would be nominative in the sentence llis {he) Wing a scholar it bujond 
doubt. 



Parsing. 183 

7. Worship thy Creator, God ; and obey his Son, the Master, King, 
and Saviour of men. 

8. Bear ye one another's burdens. 
Explanation.— The singular one is explanatory of the plural ye. 

9. What art thou, execrable shape, that darest advance ? 

10. you hard hearts ! you cruel men of Rome ! 

11. Everybody acknowledges Shakespeare to be the greatest of 
dramatists. 

12. Think' st thou this heart could feel a moment's joy, thou being 
absent ? 

13. Our great forefathers had left him nought to conquer but his 
country. 

(For case of him see Explanation of (3), above.) 

14. I will attend to it myself. 
Explanation.— Myself 'may be treated as explanatory of i". 

15. This news of papa's * puts me all in a nutter. 

16. What means that hand upon that breast of thine ? * 



PARSING. 

To the Teacher.— We do not believe that the chief end of the study of grammar 
is to be able to parse well, or even to analyze well, though, without question, analysis 
reveals more clearly than parsing the structure of the sentence, and is immeasurably 
superior to it as intellectual gymnastics. We would not do away with parsing 
altogether, but would give it a subordinate place. 

But we must be allowed an emphatic protest against the needless and mechanical 
quoting, in parsing, of " Rules of Syntax." When a pupil has said that such a noun 
is in the nominative case, subject of such a verb, what, is gained by a repetition of the 
definition in the Rule : "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject- of a finite verb 
is in the nominative case" ? Let the reasons for the disposition of words, when 
given at all, be specific. 

Parsing a word is giving its classification, modifications, 
and syntax (i. e., its relation to other words). 

Direction.— Select and parse in full all the nouns and pronouns found in the first 
ten sentences of Lesson 120. 



* See foot-note, pages 188 and 189. 



184 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

Model for Written Parsing .—Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, teas beheaded by 
James I. 



CLASSIFICATION. 




MODIFICATIONS. 




SYNTAX. 


Nouns. 
Elizabeth's 
favorite 
Raleigh 
James I. 


Kind. 
Prop. 
Coin. 
Prop. 


Number. 

Sing. 


Gender. 

Fern. 

Mas. 


Person. 
3d. 


Case. 
Pos. 
Nom. 

Obj. 


Pos. Mod. of favorite. 
Sub. of was behead* d. 
Kxp. Mod. of favorite. 
Prin. word in Prep, phrase. 



To the Teacher.— For exercises in parsing nouns and pronouns, see Lessons 28, 
29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 44, 46, 59, 60, 71, 73, 78, 80, and 81. Other exercises may be selected 
from examples previously given for analysis, and parsing continued as long as you 
think it profitable. 



LESSON 122. 

CASE FORMS— NOUNS. 

Nouns have two case forms, the simple form, common to 
the nominative and the objective case, and the possess ire form. 

RULE.— The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singu- 
lar, by adding, to the nominative, the apostrophe and the letter 
('*) ; in the plural, by adding (') only. If the plural does not end in 
s, ('«) are both added.* 

Examples.— Boy's, boys\ men's. 

MemarU.— To avoid an unpleasant succession of hissing sounds, the 5 in the 
possessive singular is sometimes omitted ; as, conscience'' sake, goodness" 1 sake, Ac?iill> s* 
sword, Archimedes' screw (the s in the words following the possessive here has its 
influence). In prose this omission of the s should seldom occur. The weight of u>;iL r e 
inclines to the s in such names as Miss Bovnds's, Mrs. Hemans's, King James's, wit- 
ness's, prince's. Without the s there would be no distinction, in spoken language, 
between Miss Bound's and Miss Bounds', Mrs. Heman's and Mrs. Hemans'. 

Itemark.— Pronounce the ('s) as a separate syllable (—es), when the sound of 8 
will not unite with the last sound of the nominative. 

Remark..— When the singular and the plural are nlike in the nominative, some 
place the apostrophe after the s in the plural to distinguish it from the possessive 
singular; as, singular, sheep's; plural, sheeps'. 

* In Anglo-Saxon es was a genitive (possessive) ending of the singular ; as, smith, 
genitive, smithes. In old English es and is were both used. In modern English the 
vowel is dropped, and {') is used to mark its omission. The use of the apostrophe 
has been extended to distinguish the possessive from other forms of the plural. 



Case Forms — Nouns. 185 

Direction.— Study the rule and the remarks given above, and then write the 
possessive singular and the possessive plural of each of the following nouns :— 

Actor, elephant, farmer, king, lion, genius, horse, princess, buffalo, 
hero, mosquito, negro, volcano, junto, tyro, cuckoo, ally, attorney, 
fairy, lady, monkey, calf, elf, thief, wife, wolf, chief, dwarf, waif, 
child, goose, mouse, ox, woman, "beau, seraph, fish, deer, sheep, 
swine. 

Compound names and groups of words that may be treat- 
ed as compound names add the possessive sign to the last 
word ; as, a man-of-tvar's rigging, the queen of England's 
palace,* Frederick the Great's verses. 

Itemarh.— The jjossessive plural of such terms is not used. 

The preposition of with the objective is often used instead 
of the possessive case form — David's Psalms = Psalms of 
David {of='s). 

Jtemarh. — To denote the source from which a thing proceeds, or the idea of 
belonging to, of is used more frequently than ('«). 

The possessive sign ('s) is confined chiefly to the names of persons, animals, and 
things personified. We do not say the tree's leaves, but the leaves of the tree. 

The possessive sign, however, is often added to names of things which we frequently 
hear personified, or which we wish to dignify, and to names of periods of time ; as, 
the earth's surf 'ace, fortune's smile, eternity's stillness, a year's interest, a tfayVwork. 

By the use of of, such expressions as witness's statement, mothers-in-law's faults 
may be avoided. 

Direction.— Study carefully the principles and remarks given above, and then 
make each of the following terms indicate possession, using either the possessive 
sign or the preposition of, as may seem most appropriate, and join an appropriate 
name denoting the thing possessed : — 

Father-in-law, William the Conqueror, king of Great Britain, aid- 
de-camp, Henry the Eighth, attorney-at-law, somebody else,f Jeffer- 
son, enemy, hero, eagle, elephant, gunpowder, book, house, chair, 
torrent, sun, ocean, mountain, summer, year, day, hour, princess, 
Socrates. 

* In parsing the words queen and England separately, the (V) must be transferred 
to queen ; but the whole phrase queen of England may be treated as one noun in the 
possessive case. 

t In such expressions as everybody else's business, the possessive sign is removed 
from the noun and attached to the adjective. The possessive sign should generally be 
placed immediately before the name of the thing possessed. 



1 86 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

LESSON -123, 

CONSTRUCTION OF POSSESSIVE FORMS. 

As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a 
distinctive form, or inflection, it is only with this case that 
mistakes can occur in construction. 

Caution. — When several possessive nouns modify the 
same word and imply common possession, the possessive 
sign is added to the last only. If they modify different 
words, expressed or understood, the sign is added to each. 

Explanation.— William and Henry's boat, William's and Henry's boat. In the 
first example, William and Henry arc represented as jointly owning a boat ; in the 
second, each is represented as owning a separate boat— boat is understood after 
William's. 

• JtemarJc— When the different possessors are thought of as separate or opposed, 
the sign may be repeated, although joint possession is implied; as, He was hi*/a//u/'s, 
mother's, and siste?*'s favorite, He was the king's, as well as the peoples, favorite. 

Direction. — Correct these errors, and give your reasons : — 
1. The Bank of England was established in William's and Mary's 
reign. 2. Messrs. Leggett's, Stacy's, Green's & Co.'s business pros- 
pers. 3. This was James's, Charles's, and Robert's estate. 4. America 
was discovered during Ferdinand's and Isabella's reign. 5. We were 
comparing Caesar and Napoleon's victories. 6. This was the sage and 
the poet's theme. 

Expla nation.— If an article precedes the possessive, the sign is repeated. 
7. It was the king, not the people's choice. 8. They arc Thomas, 
as well as James's books. 

Cant ion. — "When a possessive noun is followed by an ex- 
planatory word, the possessive sign is added to the explana- 
tory word only. But if the explanatory word has several 
modifiers, or if there are more explanatory words than one, 
the principal word only takes the sign. 

Remark.— When a common noun is explanatory of a proper noun, and the name 
of the thing possessed is omitted, the possessive sign may be added to either the 



Construction of Possessive Forms. 187 

modifying or the principal word ; as, We stopped at Tiffany, the jeweller's, or, We 
stopped at Tiffany's, the jeweller. 

Direction. — Correct these errors : — 

1. This is Tennyson's, the poet's, home. 2. I took tea at Brown's, 
my old friend and schoolmate's. 3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen 
of England's, dominion. 4. This province is Victoria's, queen of Eng- 
land's. 5. That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's. 
6. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philosopher's and 
statesman's. 7. The Psalms are David, the king's, priest's, and proph- 
et's. 8. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace. 

Direction.— Tell which of the sentences, above, may be improved by using of 
instead of ('$.) 

Caution. — The relation of possession may be expressed 
not only by ('s) and of, but by the use of such phrases as 
belonging to, property of, etc. In constructing sentences be 
careful to secure smoothness and clearness by taking advan- 
tage of these different forms. 

Direction.— Improve the following sentences :— 

1. This is my wife's father's opinion. 

Correction.— This is the opinion of my wife's father, or held by my wife's father. 

2. This is my wife's father's farm. 3. France's and England's 
interests differ widely. 4. Frederick the Great was the son of the 
daughter of George I. , of England. 5. My brother's wife's sister's 
drawings have been much admired. 6. The drawings of the sister of 
the wife of my brother have been much admired. 

Of is not always equivalent to the ('5). 

Explanation.— The president's reception means the reception given by the presi- 
dent ; but the reception of the president means the reception given to the president. 

Direction.— Construct sentences illustrating the meaning of the following ex- 
pressions :— 

A mother's love, the love of a mother ; a father's care, the care of a 
father ; my friend's picture, a picture of my friend. 

Caution. — Often ambiguity may be prevented by changing 
the assumed subject of a participle from a nominative or 
an objective to a possessive. 



1 88 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Direction.— Cormct these errors :— 

1. The writer, being a scholar is not doubted. 

Correction.— This is ambiguous, as it may mean either that the writer is not 
doubted, because lie is a scholar, or that the writer's scholarship is not doubted. It 
should be The writer's bang a scholar is not doubted, or That the writer is a scholar 
is not doubted. 

2. I have no doubt of the writer being a scholar. 3. No one ever 
heard of that man running for office. 4. Brown being a politician pre- 
vented his election. 5. I do not doubt him being sincere. C. Grouchy 
being behind time decided the fate of Waterloo. 



LESSOW 424. 

NUMBER AND CASE FORMS. 
Declension. 
DEFINITION.— Declension is the arrangement of the eases 
of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers. 

Direction.— Learn the following declensions :— 

Declension of Nouns. 

LADY. BOY. MAN. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Sing. Plural. 

JSfom. lady, ladies, boy, boys, man, men, 

Pos. lady's, ladies', boy's, boys', man's, men's, 

Obj. lady ; ladies. boy ; boys. man ; men. 



Declension of Pronouns. 
Personal Pronouns. 



FIRST PERSON. 


SECOND PERSON — 


SECOND 


PERSON — 




common form. 


old form. 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. I, we, 


you, you, 


thou, 


ye or you, 


-p my or our or 


your or your or 


thy or 


your or 


mine,* ours, 


yours, yours, 


thine, 


yours, 


Obj. me ; us. 


you ; you. 


thee ; 


you. 



* The forms mine, ours, yours, thine, hers, and theirs arc used only when the name 
of the thing possessed is omitted ; as, Yours is old, mine is new = Tour book is old, 



Number and Case Forms. 



189 



THIRD PERSON— Mas. THIRD PERSON— Fem. THIRD PERSON— N&Ut. 



aar. 
Nom. he, 

Pos. his, 



Plural. 
they, 
their or 
theirs, 
him ; theni. 



Singular. Plural. 

she, they, 

her or their or 

hers, theirs, 

her : them. 



'ar. Plural. 

it, they, 

their or 
theirs, 

it ; them. 



its, 



Compound Personal Pronouns. 



tlar. 
Nom. and 
Obj. 

myself or ) 
ourself ; \ 



Plural. 
Nom. and 



ourselves. 



liar. 

Nom. and 
Obj. 

thyself or 

yourself ; [ 



Plural. 

Nom. and 
Obj. 

I yourselves. 



Singular. Plural. 
Nom. and Nom. and 



Obj. 
himself ; 
herself ; 
itself ; 



Obj. 

them- 
selves. 



Hemark.— The possessive of these pronouns is wanting. 

Ourself and zve are used by rulers, editors, and others to hide their individuality, 
and give authority to what they say. 



Sing, and Plu. 
Nom. who, 
Pos. whose, 
Obj. whom. 



Relative Pronouns. 
Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. 



which, 
whose, 
which. 



that, 



that. 



g. and Plu. 
what, 

what. 



Memark.— Instead of using whose as the possessive of which, many prefer the 



Interrogative Pronouns. 
The interrogative pronouns who, which, and what, are de- 
clined like the relative who, which, and what. 

etc. Mine and thine were formerly used before words beginning with a vowel sound ; 
as, thine enemy, mine honor. 

The expression a friend of mine presents a peculiar construction. The explanation 
generally given is, that of is partitive, and the expression equivalent to one friend of 
my friends. And it is claimed that this construction can be used only when more 
than one thing is possessed. But such expressions as this heart of mine, that temper 
of yours are good, idiomatic English— This sweet wee wife of mine.— Burns. This 
naughty world of ours.— Byron. This moral life of mine. — Sher. Knoicles. Dim are 
those heads of theirs.— Carlyle. Some suggest that the word possessing or owning is 
understood after these possessives ; as, This temper of yours (your possessing); 
others say that of simply marks identity ; as in City of New York (see Lesson 34). 
They would make the expression = that temper, your temper. 



190 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

Compound Relative Pronouns. 

Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. 

Mom. whoever, whosoever, 

Pos. whosever, whosesoever, 

Obj. whomever. whomsoever. 

Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever, do not 
change their form. 

Adjective Pronouns. 

This and that with their plurals, these and those, have no 
possessive form, and are alike in the nominative and the 
objective. One and other are declined like nouns ; and 
another, declined like oilier in the singular, has no plural. 
Each, every, either, and neither are always singular ; both is 
always plural ; and all, any, former, latter, none, same, some, 
and such are either singular or plural. 

Descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural, and are 
not declined. Such expressions as " the wretched' s only 
plea," "for ten's sake/' and "the wicked's den," are ex- 
ceptional. 

— « — 

LESSOR 4m, 

CASE FORMS— PRONOUNS. 

The pronouns /, thou, he, she, and who, are the only 
words in the language that have each three different case 
forms. 

Direction.— Study the Declension*, and correct these errors :— 
Our's, your's, hi's, her's, it's, their's, yourn, hisn, hern, theirn. 

Construction of Case Forms — Pronouns. 
Caution. — I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who are 
nominative forms, and must not be used in the objective 



Case Forms — Pronouns. 191 

case. Me, us, thee, him, her,* them, and whom are ©&- 
jective forms, and must not be used in the nominative case. 

Kemark.— The eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms here given 
are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the language. All the 
rules of syntax given in the grammars to guide in the use of the nominative and the 
objective case apply, practically, only to these fifteen words. 

Direct ion.— Study carefully the definitions and principles given under the head 
of case, Lesson 119, and then correct these errors, giving your reasons in every 
instance : — 

1. It is not me f you are in love with. 2. She was neither better bred 
nor wiser than you or me.f 3. Who f servest thou under? 4. It 
was not them, it was her. 5. Its being me should make no difference. 
6. Him and me are of the same age. 7. Them that study grammar 
talk no better than me. 8. I am not so old as her ; she is older than 
me by ten years. 9. He was angry, and me too. 10. Who will go ? 
Me. 11. It isn't for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. 
12. Not one in a thousand could have done it as well as him. 13. Him 
being a stranger, they easily misled him. 14. Oh, happy us ! sur- 
rounded thus with blessings. 15. It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh 
promoted. 16. I referred to my old friend, he of whom I so often 

* Her is also a possessive. 

t Dr. Latham defends It is me, but condemns It is him and It is her. Dean Alford 
regards as correct the forms condemned by Latham, and asserts that thee and me 
are correct in " The nations not so blest as thee" " Such weak minister as me may 
the oppressor bruise." Prof. Bain justifies If I were him, It was her, and He is better 
than me, and even defends the use of who as an objective form by quoting from 
Shakespeare, " Who servest thou under ? " and from Steele, " Who should I meet ? " 

They justify such expressions as It is me from the analogy of the French c'est moi, 
and on the ground that they are " more frequently heard than the prescribed form.' 1 
But such analogy would justify It are them (ce sont evx); and, if the argument from 
the speech of the uneducated is to have weight, we have good authority for " Her 
ain't a calling we ; us don't belong to she." A course of reading will satisfy any one 
that the best writers and speakers in England are not in the habit of using such ex- 
pressions as It is me, and that they are almost, if not quite, unknown in American 
Literature. No one has so freed himself from the influence of early associations that 
in a careless moment some vicious colloquialism may not creep into his discourse. 
A violation of every principle of grammar may be defended, if such inadvertencies 
are to be erected into authority. To whatever is the prevailing, the habitual usage 
of a majority of the best writers and speakers the grammarian bows without ques- 
tion ; but not to the accidental slips of even the greatest names, or to the common 
usage of the unreflecting and the uncultivated. 



192 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

speak. 17. You have seen Cassio and she together. 18. Between 
you and I, I believe that he is losing his mind. 19. Who should I 
meet the other day but my old friend ? 20. Who did he refer to, he 
or I ? 21. Who did he choose ? Did he choose you and I ? 22. He 
that is idle and mischievous reprove. 23. We will refer it to whoever 
you may choose. 24. Whosoever the court favors is safe. 25. They 
that are diligent I will reward. 26. Scotland and thee did in each 
other live. 27. My hour is come, but not to render up my soul to 
such as thee. 28. I knew that it was him. 29. I knew it to be he. 
30. Who did you suppose it to be ? 31. Whom did you suppose it 
was ? 32. I took that tall man to be he. 33. I thought that tall man 
was him. 

LISSOM 426. 

CONSTRUCTION OF CASE FORMS. 
Miscellaneous— Review. 

Direction.— Correct these errors, and give your reasons : — 

1. Who was Joseph's and Benjamin's mother ? 2. It did not occur 
during Washington, Jefferson, or Adam's administration. 3. I con- 
sulted Webster, Worcester, and Walker's dictionary. 4. This state 
was south of Mason's and Dixon's line. 5. These are neither George 
nor Fanny's books. 6. Howard's, the philanthropist's, life was a noble 
one. 7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general. 8. He 
visited his sons-in-law's homes. 

Explanation.— If the possessive plural of such, nouns were used, this would be 
correct ; but it is better to avoid these awkward forms. 

9. A valuable horse of my friend William's father's was killed. 
10. For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife. ' 11. For the queen's 
sake, his sister's. 12. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was 
that of fishermen. 13. He spoke of you studying Latin. 14. It 
being difficult did not deter him. 15. What need is there of the man 
swearing? 16. I am opposed to the gentleman speaking again. 
17. He thought it was us. 18. We shall shortly see which is the 
fittest object of scorn, you or me. 19. I shall not learn my duty from 
such as thee. 20. A lady entered, whom I afterwards found was 
Miss B. 21. A lady entered, who I afterwards found to be Miss B. 



Comparison. 1 93 



22. Ask somebody's else opinion. 23. Let him be whom he may. 
24. I am sure it could not have been them. 25. I understood it to be 
they. 26. It is not him whom you thought it was. 27. Let you and 
I try it. 28. All enjoyed themselves, us excepted. 29. Us boys 
enjoy the holidays. 30. It was Virgil, him who wrote the JEneid. 



COMPARISON. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— That apple is sweet, that other is sweeter, but 
this one is the sweetest. The adjective sweet, expressing a quality of the three appJes, 
is, as you see, inflected by adding er and est. 

Adjectives, then, have one modification, and this is marked \>y form, or inflection. 
This modification is called Comparison, because it is used when things are com- 
pared with each other in respect to some quality common to them all, but possessed 
by them in different degrees. The form of the adjective which expresses the simple 
quality, as sweet, is of the Positive Degree; that which expresses the quality in a 
greater or a less degree, as sweeter, less sweet, is of the Comparative Degree; and 
that which expresses the quality in the greatest or the least degree, as sweetest, least 
sweet, is of the Superlative Degree. 

But even the positive implies a comparison, as we should not say This apple is 
sweet, unless this particular fruit had more of the quality than ordinary apples 



Notice, too, that the adjective in the comparative and superlative degrees always 
expresses the quality relatively. When we say This apple is sweeter than that, or This 
apple is the sweetest of the three, we do not mean that any of the apples is really or in 
the highest degree sweet ; but only that one apple is sweeter than the other, or the 
sweetest of those compared. 

The several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may be increased or 
diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective— we can say very, exceedingly, rather, 
or somewhat sweet ; far, still, or much sweeter ; by far, or much the sweetest. 

Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, are compared. 

Questions on the Hints.— Wliat one modification have adjectives ? Is it marked 
by form ? Illustrate. What is Comparison ? Why so called? What are the three 
degrees, and what do they express? Shoiv how the positive degree of the adjective im- 
plies comjMrison. Do the comparative and si/perlative degrees exjn-ess quality abso- 
lutely? Illustrate. What are some of the adverbs by which the degrees of the qual- 
ity may be increased or diminished? Illustrate. Wliat besides adjectives are 
compared ? 

13 



194 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

Adjectives have one modification; viz., Comparison.* 

DEFINITIONS. 

Comparison is a modification of the adjective to express the 
relative degree of the quality f in the things compared. 

The Positive Degree expresses the simple quality. 

The Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less degree 
of the quality. 

The Superlative Degree expresses the greatest or least degree 
of the quality. 

RULE.— Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the 
positive to form the comparative, and est to the positive to form the 
superlative. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 
RULE I. — Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a 
vowel ; as, fine, finer ; love, loving. 

Except ions .— The e is retained (1) after c and g, when the suffix begins with a or 
o ; as, peaceable, changeable ; (2) after o ; as, hoeing ; and (3) when it is needed to 
preserve the identity of the word ; as, singeing, dyeing. 

RULE II.— Final y preceded by a consonant changes to i when 
a suffix is added not beginning with i ; as, icitty, wittier ; dry, dru d. 

RULE III. — Those monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable which end in a single consonant following a single vowel 
double this consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, 
hot, hotter ; begin, beginning. 

Exccj>tioiis.—X, 7c, and v are never doubled, and gas has gases in the plnral. 

Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally com- 
pared by prefixing more and most. This method is often 
used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes with 
those of one. 

KemarJc.—Mo/e beautiful, most beautiful, etc., can hardly be called decree 
forms of the adjective. The adverbs more and most have the degree forms, and in 

* Two adjectives, this and that, have number forms — this, these ; that, those. In 
Anglo-Saxon and Latin, adjectives have forms to indicate gender, number, and i 
t Different degrees of quantity also, may sometimes be expressed by comparison. 



Comparison, 



195 



parsing they may be regarded as separate words. The adjective, however, is varied 
in sense the same as when the inflections er and est are added. 

Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing less and 
least; as, valuable, less valuable, least valuable. 

Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be 
compared, as their meaning will not admit of different 
degrees. 

D ireet ion.— From this list of adjectives select those that cannot be compared, 
and compare those which remain : — 

Observe the Rules for Spelling given above. 

Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, hand- 
some, happy, able, polite, hot, sweGt, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, 
witty, humble, any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, 
lunar, superior. 

Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more 
easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be 
preferred. 

Direction.— Correct the following:— 
Famousest, virtuouscst, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest. 

Some adverbs are compared by adding er and est, and 
some by prefixing more and most. 

Direction.— Compare the following : — 
Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely. 

Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their com- 
parison. 

Direction.— Learn to compare the following adjectives and adverbs :— 



Adjectives Irregularly Compared. 



Pos. Comp. Superlative. 

(Aft)* after jaftmostor 

' ( aftermost. 
Bad, \ 

Evil, V worse, worst. 

Ill, ) 



Pos. 
Far, 

Fore, 



Comp. 
farther, 

former, 



(Forth), further, 



Superlative. 
( farthest or 
} farthermost, 
j foremost or 
I first. 

j furthest or 
I furthermost. 



* These words enclosed in curves are adverbs— the adjectives following having no 
positive form. 



196 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Pos. 
Good, 

Hind, 

(In), 

Late, 

Little, 

Many or 
Much 



Comp. 
better, 



hinder, 



inner, 



:\ 



best. 
j hindmost or 
I hindermost. 
j inmost or 
( innermost. 

( later or j latest or 

i latter, ( last. 

j less or 

( lesser, 



least. 



most. 



I Pos. 
• Near, 

! Old, 

(Out), 

Under, 

(Up), 

Top, 



Comp. Superlative, 

( nearest or 
nearer, -{ 

( next. 

( older or j oldest or 

( elder, I eldest. 

(outmost or 
outermost ; 
utmost or 
uttermost. 

undermost. 

j upmost or 

( uppermost. 

topmost. 



upper, 



Pos. 
Badly, 
111, 
Far, 
Forth, 



Adverbs Irregularly Compared. 



Comp. 



farther, 
further, 



Superlative. 

worst. 

farthest, 
furthest. 



Pos. Comp. Superlative. 

Little, less, least. 

Much, more, most. 

Well, better, best. 



To the Teacher.— We give below a model for writing the parsing of adjectives. 
A similar form may be used for adverbs. 

Exercises for tbe parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected from Les- 
sons 12, 14, 29, 30, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 60, 63, 64, 65. 

Model for Written Parsing. -All the dewy glades are still. 



CLASSIFICATION". 


MODIFICATION. 


SYNTAX. 


Adjectives. 
All 
tbe 
dewy 
still 


Kind. 
Def. 

Des. 


Beg. of Comp. 
Pos. 


Modifier of glades. 

Completes are and modifies glades. 



,ESS0H 428, 



CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND 

SUPERLATIVES. 
Caution. — In stating a comparison avoid comparing a 
thin or with itself. 






Construction of Comparatives and Superlatives. 197 

Hemark.— The comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of things) as dis- 
tinct from each other, and implies that one has more of the quality than the other. 
The comparative degree is generally followed by than.* 

Direction. — Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors': — 

1. London is larger than any city in Europe. 

Correction.— The second term of comparison, any city in Europe, includes London, 
and so London is represented as being larger than itself. It should be London is 
larger than any other city in Europe, or London is the largest city in Europe. 

2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 
3. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4. There is no 
metal so useful as iron. 

(A comparison is here stated, although no degree form is employed.) 
5. All the metals are less useful than iron. 6. Time ought, above 
all kinds of property, to be free from invasion. 

Caution, — In using the superlative degree, be careful to 
make the latter term of the comparison, or the term intro- 
duced by of include the former. 

Remark.— The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of things) as belong- 
ing to a group or class, and as having more of the quality than any of the rest. The 
superlative is generally followed by of.f 

Direction.— Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors : — 

1. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings. 
Correction,— Of (= belonging to) represents Solomon as belonging to a group of 

kings, and other excludes him from this group — a contradiction in terms. It should 
be Solonwn was the wisest of Hebrew kings, or Solomon was toiser than any other 
Hebrew king. 

2. Of all the other books I have examined, this is the most satis- 
factory. 3. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inexcus- 
able. 4. He was the most active of all his companions. 

(He was not one of his own companions.) 

* The comparative is generally used with reference to two things only, but it may 
be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together ; 
as, He is no better than other men, It contains more instruction than all the others 
combined. 

t The superlative is generally used with reference to more than two things, but it 
maybe used to compare two; as, Which is the best of the two? Many grammarians 
claim that the comparative should always be used in such constructions ; but the 
superlative is nor incorrect, for (1) it is supported by the best usage, (2) it is sometimes 
less stiff and formal than the comparative, and (3) the precedes the adjective, of fol- 
lows it, and the latter term of the comparison includes the former— the construction 
peculiar to the superlative. 



198 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

5. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort. 
Caution. — Avoid double comparatives and double super- 
latives, and the comparison of adjectives whose meaning 
will not admit of different degrees.* 

Direct ion.-— Correct these errors : — 

1. A more healthier location cannot be found. 2. He took the 
longest, but the most pleasantest route. 3. Draw that line more per- 
pendicular. 

Correct ion. —Draw that line perpendicular, or more nearly perpendicular. 

4. The opinion is becoming more universal. 5. A worser evil 
awaits us. 6. The most principal point was entirely overlooked. 
7. That form of expression is more preferable. 

Caution, — When an adjective denoting one or more than 
one is joined to a noun, the adjective and the noun must 
agree in number. 

Jtemark.—A numeral denoting more than one may he prefixed to a singular noun 
to form a compound adjective ; as, a ten-foot pole (not a ten-feet pole), a three-cent 
stamp. 

Direct ion.— Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors :— 
1. These kind of people will never be satisfied. 2. The room is 
fifteen foot square ; I measured it with a two-feet rule. 3. The farmer 
exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. 4. These 
sort of expressions should be avoided. 5. We were traveling at the 
rate of forty mile an hour. 6. Remove this ashes and put away that 
tongs. 

Miscellaneous. 

(Two of these examples are correct.) 

1. He was more active than any other of his companions. 

Correction. — As he is not one of his companions, other is unnecessary. 

* Double comparatives and double superlatives were formerly used by pood writers 
for the sake of emphasis; as, Our worser thoughts Heaven mend! — )>hakt*i><.are. 
The mod straitest sect.— Bible. 

Many words which grammarians have considered inrapable of comparisr.n are used 
in a sense short of their strict literal meaning, and compared by good writers : as, My 
chiefest entertainment.— Sheridan. The chief 8t prize. — Byron. Divined Melancholy. 
—Milton. Extreme-st hell. — }V hit tier. Most perfect harmony.— Longfellow. Le^ per- 
fect imitations.— Macaulay. 






Modifications of the Verb. 199 

2. He did more to accomplish this result than any other man that 
preceded or followed him. 3. The younger of the three sisters is 
the prettier. 
(This is the construction which requires the superlative. See Remark 2, above.) 
4. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. 5. She was 
willing to take a more humbler part. 6. Solomon was wiser than any 
of the ancient kings. 7. Which of these two books is the best ? 8. A 
farmer sold two span of horses, five yoke of oxen, twenty head of 
cattle, and fifty pair of ducks. 9. This is the more preferable form. 
10. Which are the two more important ranges of mountains in North 
America ? 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 
Voice. 

Hints, for Oral Instruction. — He picked a rose, A rose was picked by him. 
The same thing is here told in two ways. The first verb picked shows that the subject 
names the actor ; the second verb was picked shows that the subject names the thing 
acted upon. These different forms and uses of the verb constitute the modification 
called Voice. The first form is in the Active Voice; the second in the Passive 
Voice. 

The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent ; the 
passive when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent. The passive voice may 
be used when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we do not care to name 
it ; as, The ship was wrecked. Money is coined. 

Questions on the Hints.— What is Voice? What are the two voices? How does 
the active voice represent the subject ? The passive ? Illustrate. How does the verb in the 
two voices differ inform ? When is the one voice used, and when the other? Illustrate. 



DEFINITIONS. 
Voice is tliat modification of the transitive verb which shows 
whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon. 

The Active Voice shows that the subject names the actor. 

The Passive Voice shows that the subject names the thing 
acted upon. 

The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into 



200 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

an asserting word (some form of the verb be), and an attri- 
bute complement (a past participle of a transitive verb). 

An expression consisting of an asserting word followed 
by an adjective complement or by a participle used acljec- 
tively may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice. 

Examples.— The coat tvas sometimes ivorn by Joseph (was worn— passive voice). 
The coat was badly worn (was— incomplete predicate, worn— adjective complement). 

Remark.— To test the passive voice note whether the one named ty the subject is 
acted upon, and whether the verb may be followed by by before the name of the agent. 

Direction.— Tell which of the following completed predicates may be treated as 
single verbs, and which should be resolved into incomplete predicates and attribute 
complements :— 

1. The lady is accomplished. 2. This task was not accomplished 
in a day. 3. Are you prepared to recite ? 4. Dinner was soon pre- 
pared. 5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. G. You are 
mistaken. 7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. 8. The 
house is situated on the bank of the river. 9. I am obliged to you. 
10. I am obliged to do this. 11. The horse is tired. 12. A fool and 
his money are soon parted. 13. The tower is inclined. 14. My body 
is inclined by years. 

Direction.— Name all the transitive verbs in Lesson 78, and give their voice. 



LISSOM 130. 

COMPOSITION— VOICE. 

The object complement of a verb in the active voice becomes 
the subject when the verb is changed to the jjassive voice. 

Example.— The Danes invaded England = England was invaded by the Danes. 

Remark.— You will notice that in the first sentence the agent is made prominent ; 
in the second sentence the receiver. 

Direction. — In each of these sentences change the voice of the transitive verb 
without changing the meaning of the sentence, and note the other changes that 
occur : — 

1. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, wore a winged cap and 
winged slioes. 2. When the Saxons subdued tbe Britons, they intro- 
duced into England their own language, which was a dialect of the 



osition — Voice. 20 r 



Teutonic, or Gothic. 3. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress 
was chosen, not for a fine, glossy surface, but for s:uch qualities as 
would wear well. 4. Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshipped in 
many parts of Greece and Rome. 5. The minds of children are 
dressed by their parents as their bodies are dressed— in the prevailing 
fashion. 6. Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood 
circulates. 7. The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman 
legions, vanquished the victorious Carthaginians. 8. His eloquence 
had struck them dumb. 

ttemarh.— Notice that the objective complement becomes the attribute complement 
when the verb is changed from the active ro the passive voice. This does not, how- 
ever, alter the relation of these terms to each other. 

9. That tribunal pronounced Charles a tyrant. 10. 'The town had 
nicknamed him Beau Seymour. 11. Even silent night proclaims my 
soul immortal. 12. We saw the storm approaching. 

(Notice that the objective complement is here a participle.) 

13. He kept his mother waiting. 14. We found him lying dead on 
the field. 15. We all believe him to be an honest man. 

(Notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase.) 

16. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 17. Every- 
body acknowledged him to be a genius. 

The so-called indirect, or dative, object is sometimes made 
the subject of a verb in the passive voice, while the object 
complement is retained after the verb.* 

Example.— The porter refused him admittance = He was refused admittance by 
the porter. 

(Some would treat admittance as adverbial modifier of was refused.) 

Direction.— Change the voice of the transitive verbs in these sentences, and note 
the other changes that occur : — 

18. They were refused the protection of the law. 19. He was 
offered a pension by the government. 20. I was asked that question 
yesterday. 21. He told me to leave the room. 

Explanation.— Here the infinitive phrase is the object complement, and (to) me 
is used adverbially. To leave the room = that 1 shovld leave the room. 

* Some grammarians condemn this construction. It is true that it is a violation of 
the general analogies, or laws, of language ; but that it is an idiom of our language, 
established by good usage, is beyond controversy. 



20.2 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

22. I taught the child to read. 23. I taught the child reading. 
24. They told me that your name was Fontibell. 

Direct i on.— Change the following transitive verba to the passive form, using first 
the regular and then the idiomatic construction :— 

Model.— He promised me a present = A present was promised me (regular) = I was 
promised a present (idiomatic). 

25. They must allow us the privilege of thinking for ourselves. 
26. He offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion. 

An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by the 
aid of a preposition. 

Example. — All his friends laughed at him = He teas laughed at (ridiculed) by all 
his friends. 

Jtemark.— Was laughed at may be treated as one verb. Some grammarians, 
however, would call at an adverb. The intransitive verb and preposition are together 
equivalent to a transitive verb in the passive voice. 

Direction.— Change the voice of the following verbs :— 

27. This artful fellow has imposed upon us all. 28. The speaker 
did not even touch upon this topic. 29. He dropped the matter there, 
and did not refer to it afterward. 

Jtemark.— The following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic construction. A 
transitive verb which, in the active voice, is followed by an object complement and a 
prepositional phrase, takes, in the passive, the principal word of the phrase for its 
subject, retaining the complement and the preposition to complete its meaning ; as, 
They took care of it, It ivas taken care of. 

Direction.— Put the following sentences into several different forms, and deter- 
mine which is the best :— 

30. His original purpose was lost sight of* (forgotten). 31. Such 
talents should be made much of. 32. He was taken care of by his 
friends. 33. Some of his characters have been found fault with as 
insipid. 

* Some would parse o/as an adverb relating to was lost, and sight as a noun used 
adverbially to modify was lost ; others would treat sight as an object [complement] of 
was lost; others would call was lost sight of a compound verb : and others, claiming 
that the logical relation of these words is not lost by a change of position, analyze it 
as if arranged thus : Sight of his original purpose was lost. 

It seems to us that any separate disposition of these words is unsatisfactory. 

Mr. Goold Brown pronounces this construction "an unparsable syuchysis, a vile 
snarl, which no grammarian should hesitate to condemn." 



Modifications of tJie Verb — Continued. 203 



LESSON ISI, 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED. 
Mode, Tense, Number, and Person. 

Hints for Oral Instruction.— James zvalks. Here the walking is asserted as 
an actual fact. James may walk. Here the walking is asserted not as an actual, but 
as ^possible fact.. If James walk out, he ivill improve. Here the walking is asserted 
only as thought of, without regard to its being or becoming either an actual or a possi- 
ble fact. James, walk out. Here the walking is Dot asserted as a fact, but only as a 
comma n d— James is ordered to make it a fact. 

The action expressed by the verb ivalk is here asserted in four different ways. These 
different uses and forms of the verb constitute the modification which we call Mode. 
The first verb is in the Indicative Mode; the second, in the Potential Mode ; the 
third, in the Subjunctive Mode; the fourth, in the Imperative Mode. 

For the two forms of the verb called the Participle and the Infinitive, see Les- 
sons 37 and 40. 

I walk. Itvalkecl. 1 shall xoalk. In these three sentences the manner of asserting 
the action is the same, but the time in which the action takes place is different. 
Walk asserts the action as going on in present time, and, as Tense means time, is in 
the Present Tense. Walked asserts the action &s2)ast, and is in the Past Tense. 
Shall ivalk asserts the action as future, and is in the Future Tense. 

We have three other forms of the verb, expressing the action as completed in the 
present, \he.past, or the future. 

I have walked out to-day. 1 had xoalked out when he called. 1 shall have walked 
out by to-morrow. Hare walked asserts the action as completed at the present, and is 
in the Present Perfect Tense. Had xvalked asserts the action as completed in the 
past, and is in the Past Perfect Tense. Shall hare walked asserts the action as 
completed in the future, and is in the Ftiture Perfect Tense. 

I walk. Thou walked. He walks. They walk. In the second sentence ivalk is 
changed by adding est ; in the third sentence, by adding s. Verbs are said to agree in 
Person and Number with their subjects. But this agreement is not often, as here, 
marked by changes in the form of the verb. 

Questions on the Hints.— What is Mode? Define and illustrate the several 
modes. What is Tense f Define and illustrate the several tenses. In what are verbs 
said to agree with their subjects? Is this agreement marked by form ? 



DEFINITIONS. 

Mode is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner 
asserting the action or being'. 

The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being- as a fact. 



204 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



The Potential Mode asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or 
necessity of acting" or being. 

The Subjunctive Mode asserts the action or being as a mere 
condition, supposition, or wish. 

The Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a com- 
mand or an entreaty. 

The Infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action or 
being in a general way, without asserting it of anything. 

The Participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature 
of an adjective or a noun, and expressing the action or being as 
assumed. 

The Present Participle denotes action or being as continuing 
ta the time indicated by the predicate. 

The Past Participle denotes action or being as past or com- 
pleted at the time indicated by the predicate. 

The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as com- 
pleted at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate. 



Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time 
of the action or being. 

The Present Tense expresses action or being as present. 

The Past Tense expresses action or being as past. 

The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come. 

The Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as com- 
pleted at the present time. 

The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as com- 
pleted at some past time. 

The Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to be 
completed at some future time. 



Number and Person of a verb are those modifications which 
show its agreement with the number and person of its subject. 



Forms of the Verb — List of Irregular Verbs. 205 



LISSOM 181, 

FORMS OF THE VERB. 
Conjugation. 
DEFINITIONS. 
Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of 
the verb. 

Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one num- 
ber and person in all the modes and tenses. 

Auxiliary Verbs are those which help in the conjugation of 
other verbs. 

The auxiliaries are do, did, oe (with all its variations, see 
Lesson 135), have, had, shall, should, will, would, may, 
might, can, could, and must. 

The Principal Parts of a verb, or those from which the other 
parts are derived, are the present indicative or the present infini- 
tive, the past indicative, and the past participle. 

List of Irregular Verbs. 

To the Teacher. —It would be well to require the pupils, in studying and in reciting 
these lists of irregular verbs, to frame short sentences illustrating the proper use of the 
past tense and the past participle, e.g., I began yesterday, He has begun to do better. 
In this way the pupils will be saved the mechanical labor of memorizing forms which 
they already know how to use, and they will be led to correct what has been faulty 
in their use of other forms. 

Remark.— Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form are called Re- 
dundant. 

Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts, as can and may, are called Defective. 

The present participle is not here given as a principal part. It may always be 
formed from the present tense by adding ing. 

In adding ing and other terminations, the Eules for Spelling (see Lesson 127) should 
be observed. 

Remark.— The forms, below, in Italic are regular ; and those in smaller type are 
obsolete, and need not be committed to memory. 



2o6 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Present 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. Past. 


Past Par. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden. 




awoke, 


awoke. 






chid. 


Awake, 


awaked, 


awaked. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Be, ora.ua 


, was, 


been. 


Cleave, 


cleaved, 


cleaved. 


Bear, 


bore, 


born. 


{adhere) 


clave, 




{bring forth) bare, 


borne. 


Cleave, 


clove, 


cloven. 


Bear, 


bore, 


borne. 


{split) 


cleft, 


cleft. 


{carry) 


bare, 






clave, 




Beat, 


beat, 


beaten. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Clothe, 


clad, 


clad. 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent. 




clothed, 


clothed. 


bended, 


bended. 


(Be)Come 


, came, 


come. 


Bereave, 


bereft, 


bereft. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


bereaved, 


bereaved. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Beseech, 
Bet, 


besought, 
bet, 


besought, 
bet. 


Crow, 


crew, 
crowed, 


crowed. 


betted, 


betted. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Bid, 


bade, bid, 


bidden, bid. 


Dare, 


durst, 


dared. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


{venture) 


dared, 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


dealed, 


deali 'I. 


Blend, 


blent, 
blended, 


blent. 
blended. 


Dig, 


dug, 

digged, 


dug. 
digged. 


Bless, 


blest, 


blest. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


blessed, 


blessed. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Dream 


dreamt, 


dreamt. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 




dreamed, 


dreamed. 




brake, 




Dress, 


drest, 


drest. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


dressed, 


dressed. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


builded, 


builded. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, 


dwelt. 


Burn, 


burnt, 


burnt. 


duelled, 


dwelled. 


burned, 


burned. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


(Be (Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Can, 


could, 





Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 



Forms of the Verb. 



207 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Knit, 


knit, 


knit. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


knitted, 


knitted. 


Fly, 
Forsake, 


flew, 


flown. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Lade, 

{load) 


laded, 


laded. 
laden. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


(For)Get, 


got, 


got. 


Lean, 


leant, 


leant. 






gotten. 


leaned, 


leaned. 


Gild, 


gilt, 
gilded, 


gilt. 
gilded. 


Leap, 


leapt, 
leaped, 


leapt. 
leaped. 


Gird, 


girt, 


girt. 


Learn, 


learnt, 


learnt. 




girded, 


girded. 


learned, 


learned. 


(For)Give 


, gave, 


given. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent: 


(En)Grave,#rai>6$, 


graved. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 






graven. 


Lie, 


lay, 


lain. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


{recline) 






Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Light, 


lit, 


lit. 


Hang, 


hung, 


hung. 


lighted, 


lighted. 


hanged* 


hanged. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


May, 


might, 







hove, 

heaved, 




Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Heave, 


heaved. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewed. 
hewn. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowed. 
mown. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Must, 








Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Ought, 








(Be)Hold ; 


held, 


held. 


Pass, 


past, 


past. 






holden. 


passed, 


passed. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Pen, 


pent, 


pent. 


Kneel, 


knelt, 


knelt. 


{enclose) 


penned. 


penned. 


kneeled, 


kneeled. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 



: Hang, to take life, is regular. 



2o8 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSOR 433. 



LIST 

Present. 
Quit, 

Rap, 

Read, 

Rend, 

Rid, 
Ride, 
Ring, 

(A)Rise, 

Rive, 

Run, 
Saw, 

Say, 
See, 
Seek, 

Seethe, 

Sell, 

Send, 

(Be)Set, 

Shake, 

Shall, 

Shape, 

Shave, 
Shear, 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS— CONTIN UED. 



Past. 

quit, 

quitted, 

quoth, 

rapt, 

rapped, 

read, 

rent, 

r ended, 

rid, 

rode, 

rang, 
runir, 



rived, 

ran, 

sawed, 

said, 

saw, 

sought, 

sod, 

seethed, 

sold, 

sent, 

set, 

shook, 

should, 

shaped, 

shaved, 

sheared, 
shore, 



Past Par. 
quit. 



rapt. 

rapped. 

read. 

rent, 

r ended. 

rid. 

ridden. 

rung. 

risen, 
riven. 
rived. 



sawn. 

said. 

seen. 

sought. 

sodden. 

seethed. 

sold. 

sent. 

set. 

shaken. 



shaped. 
Bhapen. 

shaved. 
shaven. 

sheared. 
shorn. 



Present. 
Shed, 
Shine, 

Shoe, 
Shoot, 

Show, 

Shred, 

Shrink, 

Shut, 
Sing, 

Sink, 



Smite, 



Past. 


Past Par. 


shed, 


shed. 


shone, 


shone. 


shiued, 


shined. 


shod, 


shod. 


shot, 


shot. 


showed, 


shown. 
slwwed. 


shred, 


shred. 


shrank, 


shrunk. 


shrunk. 


shrunken. 


shut, 


shut. 



sang, 
sun-:, 
sank, 
sunk, 



Sit, 


sat, 


Slay, 


slew, 


Sleep, 


slept, 


Slide, 


slid, 


Sling, 


slung, 
Blang, 


Slink, 


slunk, 


Slit, 


slit, 
slitted, 


Smell, 


smelt, 
smelled, 



smote, 



sorted, 



Sow, 

Speak, 

Speed, sped 



spoke, 
spake. 



sung, 
sunk. 

sunken. 

sat. 

slain. 

slept. 

slidden. 

slid. 

slung. 

slunk. 

slit. 
slitted. 
smelt. 
smelled. 

smitten. 

smit. 

sown. 

sowed. 

spoken. 



sped. 



List of Irregular Verbs — Continued. 



209 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Spell, 


spelt, 

spelled, 


spelt. 
spelled. 


Sweep, 
Swell, 


swept, 

swelled, 


swept. 
swelled. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 






swollen. 


Spill, 


spilt, 


spilt. 


Swim, 


swam, 


swum. 


spilled, 


spilled. 




swum, 




Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 




span, 




Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Spit, 


spit, 
spat, 
split, 


spit. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Split, 


split. 


Tear, 


tore, 

tare, 


torn. 


Spoil, 


spoilt, 


spoilt. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


spoiled, 


spoiled. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Thrive, 


throve, 


thriven. 


Spring, 


sprang, 


sprung. 




thrived. 


thrived. 




sprung, 




Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 














Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Stave, 


stove, 

staved, 


stove. 
staved. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


Stay, 


staid, 

stayed, 


staid. 

stayed. 


Wake, 


woke, 
waked, 


waked. 


Steal, 
Stick, 


stole, 
stuck, 


stolen, 
stuck. 


Wax, 


icaxed, 


waxen. 
waxed. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 




stank, 




Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Stride, 


strode, 


stridden. 


Wet, 
Will, 


wet, 


wet. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, 
stricken. 


wetted, 
would, 


wetted. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown. 
strowed. 


Work, 


wrought, 
worked, 


wrought. 
worked. 


Swear, 


swore, 

sware, 


sworn. 


Wot, 


wist, 





Sweat, 


sweat, 


sweat. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


sweated, 


sweated. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 




H 











2io Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSOR 4B4, 

FORMS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED. 
Conjugation — Simplest Form. 

Hemark.— English verbs have few inflections compared with those of other 
languages. Some irregular verbs have seven forms— see, saw, seeing, seen, sees, 
seest, satvest ; regular verbs have six — walk, walked, walking, walks, 
tvalkest, tvalkedst. As a substitute for other inflections we prolix auxiliary verbs, 
and make what are called compound, ox periphrastic, forms. 

Direction.— Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb 
walk. Present, walk; past, walked; past participle, walked. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) ■ ***• , 1. y e) Pre*. , 

((You) __P™ 1 _, 2 (You) ^. 

I (Thou) Pre*. es f* 



3 . (He) Pre*, sr 3 ' ( The ^ - J5 ^ 



Past Tense. 

1. (I) ■*****• , 1. (We) _ 7 **^ 

((You) _^_, 2< (Tou) ^, 
< (Thou) *"«*• s/, 

3. (He) Pa«- ; 3. (They) *** 



Future Tense. 
1. (I)*A^ *»« • , 1. (VTq) shall _L 

* i(Toa)«0l _^_, 8.(Toa)«« _Z 

t (Thou) «$-« ^- , 
3. (He)w« JVw- ; 3. (They) tot7* **»• . 

* In the indicative, present, second, singular, old stylo, st is sometimes added in- 
stead of est; and in the third person, common style, es is added, when l will not 
unite. In the third person, old style, eth is added. 



Conjugation. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) have Past Par > , 1. (We) have Pas^Par.^ 

((You) have ^- % (You) have ****»•, 
( (Thou) 7ia-st Past p ar-. 

3. (Re) has Pasi Par - ; 3 - (They) have Past Par-. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. (I) had Past Par. t 1. (We) had Pa* Par. , 

UYou) had n***^ (You) had Past Par. 

A I (Thou) had-st Past Par. , A (1 ou) ma _, 

3. (Re) had PaMPar. ; 3. (They) had Past Par., 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. (I) shall have Past Par. ; 1. (We) shall have Past Par., 



i (You) i 

I (Thou) wil-t have Past Par. , 



2. (You) icill have 



3. (Re) will have Past Par. -, 3. (They) will have P^iPar., 



POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present Tense. 



ar. 



Plural. 



rres. 



1. (J) may Pres. , ^ (We) may 

3. (He) may **<»• ; 3. (They) may p res. 



Pres. 
rres. 
Pres. 



Past Tense. 

1. (I) might Pres. , ^ (We) might 

( (You) »Mtf7i£ Pres. 

2. ml \ * ^ ^ — '' 2. (You) might 

( (Thou) might-st Pres. . v ; J 

3. (He) wwflrta JVw. ; 3. (They) might 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. (I) may have PatiPar., i (We) may have Pas t Par. , 

2 i (You) may have M^, 3 Tou) Mve Past Far ^ 

t(Thou) may -st have PastPar^ v ; y 

3. (Re) may have Past Par " , 3. (They) may have Past Par., 



212 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) might have Pa ^ Par ; l. (\y e ) might have ?<** Par. , 

j(You) might have Past Par ; a _ , . _, _ _ . __ 

2 - 'I/mi x -7, *7 p™/ /w 2. {\ on) might have PatrPar^ 

((Thou) might-st have JasUar. f J 

3. (He) might have Pasi Par - ; 3. (They) might have 7> "** Par : 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 

2. .(If thou) J*»- . 3. (If he)* Pres. . 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Pm. (you (?r thou). 2. Pre*, (you). 



INFINITIVES. 
Present Tense. Present Perfect Tense. 

f (To) Pre*- . (To) have Pa!it Par. . 

*The subjunctive as a form of the verb is fading out of the language. The only- 
distinctive forms remaining (except for the verb be) are the second and the third per- 
son singular of the present, and even these are giving way to the indicative. Such 
forms as If he hare loved, etc., are exceptional. It is true that other forms ; as, If he 
had known, Had he been, Though he should fall, may be used iu a true subjunctive 
sense, to assert what is a mere conception of the mind, i. e., what is merely thought of, 
without regard to its being or becoming a fact ; but in these cases it is not the form of 
the verb, but the connective or something in the construction of the sentence that de- 
termines the manner of assertion. In parsing, the verbs in such constructions may be 
treated as indicative or potential, with a subjunctive meaning. 

The offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantly interchanging ; a 
classification based strictly on meaning would be very difficult, and would confuse the 
learner. 

t To, as indicated by the (), is not treated as a part of the verb. Writers on lan- 
guage are generally agreed that when to introduces an infinitive phrase used as an 
adjective or an adverb, it performs its proper function as a preposition, meaning to- 
ward, for, etc.; as, I am inclined to believe, I came to hear. When the Infinitive 
phrase is used as a noun, the to expresses no relation ; it seems merely to introduce 
the phrase. When a word loses its proper function without taking on the function of 
some other part of speech, we do not see why it should change its name. In the expres- 
sions, For me to do this would be wrong, Over the fence is out of danger, few gram- 






Forms of the Verb — Continued. 213 

PAETICIPLES. 
Present. Past. Past Perfect. 

Pres. jng. Fast Par -. Raving Tast Par - . 



Direction.— Prefix do and did to the present, and make the emphatic form of the 
present and the past tense. 

Use can and must in place of may ; and could, would, and should in place of might. 
Tell how each tense is formed, and note all changes for agreement in number and 
person. 

To the Teacher.— Require the pupils to fill out these forms with other verbs, regu- 
lar and irregular. 



LESSON 181, 



FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. 
Conjugation of the Verb BE. 

Direction.— Learn the following forms, paying no attention to the line at the 
right of each verb :— 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) am — , 1. (We) are , 

( (You) are , or /v » 

*• "i \™ \ *• (You) are , 

((Thou) art , v ' 

3. (He) is ; 3. (They) are . 

marians would hesitate to call for and over prepositions, although they do not express 
relation. 

We cannot see that to is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning as 
does an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken to. Those who call it a part of 
the verb, confuse the learner by speaking of it as the " preposition to " (which, as they 
have said, is not a preposition) "placed before the infinitive," i. e., placed before that 
of which it forms a part— placed before itself. 

In the Anglo-Saxon to was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where it 
had its proper function as a preposition ; as, nominative, etan (to eat) ; dative, to 
etanne ; accusative, etan. When the dative ending ne was dropped, making the 
three forms alike, the to came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, 
but without expressing relation. 



214 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 
1. (I) was , 1. (We) were , 



j (You) were , or n , v , 

2 - V/rpi \ * 2. (You were 

( ( Thou) wast , ' 

3. (He) was ; 3. (They) were — 

Future Tense. 

1. (I) shall be , 1. (We) shall be - 

o ( (You) will be , or n /xr x .,, , 

( (Thou) wilt be , 

3. (He) wiU be ; 3. (They) will be - 



Present Perfect Tense. 
1. (I) have been , 1. (We) have been — 

j (You) have been , or n /Ar , , , 

2 - "i,™. \ t * i 2 - (lou) have been - 

( (Thou) hast been , 

3. (He) has been ; 3. (They) have been - 

Past Perfect Tense. 
1. (I) had been , 1. (We) had been 



( (You) had been , or /Xr x , , , 

2 - ti \i a *i ■ 2 - (^-ou had been , 

( (Thou) hadst been , v 

3. (He) had been ; 3. (They) had been 

Future Perfect Tense. 
1. (I) shall have been , 1. (We) shall have been - 

j (You) will have been , or n ._ . .,, , t 

*• J,™ * •-.+ i i 2. (You) will have been - 

( (Thou) wilt have been , v ' 

3. (He) will have been ; 3. (They) will have been - 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



1. (I) may be , 1. (We) may be - 

( (You) may be , or n ,,^ , , 

2. -T, ; J , ' 2. (lou)may be — 
( (Thou) mayst be , v ; J 

3. (He) may be ; 3. (They) may be - 



Forms of the Verb — Continued. 215 



Past Tense. 

Plural. 



1. (I) might be , 1. (We) might be , 

( (You) might be , or n , v . , , 

2. <) ' ° 2. (You) might be , 

i (Thou) mightst be , \ j & 

3. (He) might be ; 3. (They) might be . 

Present Perfect Tense. 
1. (I) may have been , 1. (We) may have been 

o ( (You) may have been , or „ ,_ v 

2- mi \ ; n , 2. (You) may have been — 

( (Thou) mayst have been , v ' J 

3. (He) may have been ; 3. (They) may have been — 

Past Perfect Tense. 
1. (I) might have been , 1. (We) might have been - 

j (You) might have been , or „ _' .,,, . 

i ' ")/rri. x • wxt, -. *. (You) might have been - 

( (Thou) mightst have been , v ' to 

3. (He) might have been ; 3. (They) might have been - 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. (If I) be , 1. (If we) be , 

2 j (If you) be , or 

2 ' i (If thou) be , 2 - < If ^ be ■ 

3. (If he) be ; 3. (If they) be . 



Past Tense. 
Singular. 

1. (If I) were 

o j (If you) were — 

I (If thou) wert — 

3. (If he) were 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 
clar. Plural 
2. Be (you or thou) ; 2. Be (you) 



216 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

INFINITIVES. 
Present Tense. Present Perfect Tense. 
(To) be . (To) have been . 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Past. Past Perfect. 
Being . Been. Having been . 



LESSOR 436. 

FORMS OF THE VERB— CONTINUED. 
Conjugation — Progressive and Passive Forms. 
A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by joining 
its present participle to the different forms of the verb be. 

A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice by 
joining its past participle to the different forms of the 
verb be. 

Remark.— The progressive form denotes a continuance of the action or being ; 
as, The birds are singing. 

Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance— such as love, respect, know— 
should not be conjugated in the progressive form. We say I love the child— not, I 
am loving the child. 

Remark.— The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive meaning; as, 
The house is building. In such cases the word in ing was once a verbal noun 
preceded by the preposition a, a contraction from on or in ; as, "While the ark was 
a preparing, While the flesh was in seething. In modern language the preposition 
is dropped, and the word in ing is treated adjectivcly. 

Another passive ])rogressive form, consisting of the verb be completed by the 
present passive participle, has recently appeared in our language— The house Is being 
built. Although it has been condemned by many of our ablest linguists as awkward 
and otherwise objectionable, yet it has grown rapidly into good use, especially In 
England. Such a form seems to be needed when the simpler form would be am- 
biguous, i. e., when its subject might be taken to name either the actor or the re- 
ceiver ; as, The child is whipping, The prisoner is truing. 

Direction. — Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by filling all the 
blanks left after the different forms of the verb be, in the preceding Lesson, with the 



Conjugation — Continued. 217 

present participle choosing ; and then in the passive form by filling these blanks with 
the past participle chosen. 

Notice that after the past participle of the verb be no blank is left. The past par- 
ticiple of the passive is not formed by the aid of be, but is the same in form as the 
simple active. In the progressive, the past participle is wanting. All the participles 
of the verb choose are arranged in order below. 

Present. Past. Past Perfect. 

Simplest form. choosing, chosen, having chosen. 

Progressive form, being choosing, having been choosing. 

Passive form. being chosen, chosen, having been chosen. 

Direction. — Write and arrange, as above, all the participles of the verbs break, 
drive, read, lift. 

To the TeacJier. — Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them 
in the progressive and the passive form. Require them to give synopses of all the 
forms. Require them in some of their synopses to use it or some noun for the sub- 
ject in the third person. 



LESS0H I8F. 

CONJUGATION— CONTINUED. 
Interrogative and Negative Forms. 

A verb may be conjugated interrogatively in the indica- 
tive and potential modes by placing the subject after the 
first auxiliary ; as, Does he sing? 

A verb maybe conjugated negatively by placing not after 
the first auxiliary; as, He does not sing. Xot is placed 
before the infinitives and the participles ; as, not to sing, 
not singing. 

A question with negation is expressed in the indicative 
and potential modes by placing the subject and not after 
the first auxiliary ; as, Does he not sing ? 

Bemai'Jc— Formerly it was common to use the simple form of the present and 
past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus : Loves he:? I know not. Such forms 
are still common in poetry, but in prose they are now scarcely need. We say Does 
he love:? I do not know. The verbs be l &nd. have are exceptions, as they do not 
properly take the auxiliary do. We say Have you another? Is it right:? 

Direction.— Write a synopsis in the third person, singular, of the verb walk con- 



2i8 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

jugated (1) interrogatively, (2) negatively, and (3) so as to express a question with 
negation. Remember that the indicative and the potential are the only modus that 
can be used interrogatively. 

To the Teacher.— Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them 
negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and the passive form, Require the 
pupils to give synopses of all the forms. 



LESSON 138* 

MODE AND TENSE FORMS. 
Compound Forms — Analysis. 

The compound or periphrastic forms of the verb may each be resolved into 
an asserting word, and a participle or an infinitive used as a COtnplt m< nf. 

If we look at the original meaning of the forms I do write, I shall write, I 
will write, ve shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the real verb, and that 
write is an infinitive used as object complement. I do write = I do or perform 
the action (to) write. I shall write = I owe (to) write. I will write = I 
determ ine (to) write. 

May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, teoiild 
write, and should write, may each be resolved into an asserting word in the 
indicative mode and an infinitive complement. 

The forms is writing, was written, etc., consist each of an asserting word (the 
verb be) and a participle, used as attribute complement. 

The forms have written, had written., are so far removed from their original 
meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond with their history. They 
originated from such expressions as I have a letter written, in which have (— 2X>sse$s) 
is a transitive verb, taking letter for its object complement, and written is a passive 
participle modifying Utter. The idea of possession has faded out of have, and the 
participle, having lost its passive meaning, has become a complement of have. The 
use of this form has been extended to intransitive verbs— Spring has come, Birds have 
Jloivn, etc., being now regularly used instead of Spring is come, Birds are flown. 
(Is come, are Jloivn, etc., must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive 
voice.) 

Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus : May have been 
written is composed of the compound auxiliary may have been, and the parti- 
ciple complement written ; may have been is composed of the compound auxil- 
iary may have and the participle complement been ; and may have is eoinposcd 
of the auxiliary may and the infinitive complement have. May is the asserting 
word— the first auxiliary is always the asserting word. 

Direction.— Study what has been said above and analyze the following verbal 
forms, distinguishing carefully between participles that may be considered as part of 
the verb, and words that must be treated as attribute complements ; — 



Mode and Tense Forms. 219 

1. I may be mistaken. 2. The farm was sold. 3. I shall be con- 
tented. 4. Has it been decided ? 5. You should have been working 1 . 
6. The danger might have been avoided. 7. He may have been tired 
and sleepy. 8. She is singing. 9. I shall be contented. 10. The 
rule has not been observed. 11. Stars have disappeared. 12. Times 
will surely change. 

Tense Forms — Meaning. 
The Present Tense is used to express (1) what is actu- 
ally present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what fre- 
quently or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place 
in the future, and (5) it is used in describing past or future 
events as if occurring at the time of the speaking. 

Examples.— I hear a voice (action as present). The sun gives light (true at all 
times). He writes for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips speaks in Boston to-mor- 
row night (future). He mounts the scaffold ; the executioners approach to bind him ; 
he struggles, resists, etc. (past events pictured to the imagination as present). The 
clans of Culloden are scattered in fight ; they rally, they bleed, etc. (future events 
now seen in vision). 

The Past Tense may express (1) simply past action or 
being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and 
(4) it may refer to present time. 

Examples.— The birds sang (simply past action). He tvrote for the newspapers 
(past habit). If I should go, you would miss me (future events). H he were here, he 
would enjoy this (refers to present time). 

The Future Tense may express (1) simply future action 
or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite in 
time. 

Examples.— I shall write soon (simply future action). He will sit there by the 
hour (indefinite in time). 

The Present Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or be- 
ing as completed in present time (i. e., a period of time — an 
hour, a year, an age — of which the present forms a part), 
and (2) action or being to be completed in a future period. 

Examples.— Homer has written poems (the period of time affected by this com- 
pleted action embraces the present). The cock shall not crow till thou hast denied 
me thrice (action completed in a future period). 



220 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

The Past Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or being as 
completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a condi- 
tional or hypothetical clause it may express past time. 

Examples .—I had seen him when I met you (action completed at a specified past 
time). If I had had time, I should have written (I had not time— I did not write). 

The Future Perfect Tense expresses an action as com- 
pleted at some specified future time. 

Example.— 1 shall have seen him by to-morrow noon. 

Direction.— Study what has been said above about the meaning of the tense 
forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the following verbs :— 

I. I go to the city to-morrow. 2. The village master taught his 
little school. 3. Plato reasons well. 4. A triangle has three 
sides. 5. To-morrow is the day appointed. 6. Moses has told many 
important facts. 7. The ship sails next week. 8. She sings well. 
9. Cicero has written orations. 10. He would sit for hours and watch 
the smoke curl from his pipe. 11. You may hear when the next mail 
'arrives. 12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much 
trouble. 13. He will occasionally lose his temper. 14. At the end of 
this week I shall have been in school four years. 15. If I were you, 
I would try that. 16. He will become discouraged before he has 
thoroughly tried it. 17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the 
thrill of life along her keel. 



lessor <3§. 



PARSING. 

Direction.— Select and parse, according to the Model below, the verbs in the 
sentences of Lesson 42. 

Model for Written Parsing -Verbs.— The Yankee, selling his farm, icandtrs 
away to seek new lands. 



CLASSIFICATION. 




MODIFICATIONS. 




SYNTAX. 


Verbs. 

* selling 
wanders 

* seek 


Kind. 
Pr. Par. Ir. Tr. 
Reg. Int. 
Inf. Ir. Tr. 


Voice. 
Ac. 
Ac. 


Mode. 

Ind. 


Tense. 
Pres. 


Ifum. 

Sing. 


Per. 

3d7 


T.Tod. of Yankee. 
Pred. of 

Prin. word in phrase 
Mod. of wanders. 



* Participles and Infinitives have no subject, and, consequently, no person or 
number. 



Parsing. 



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2^2 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

LESSOR 140. 

CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE 
FORMS. 
Caution.— Be careful to give every verb its proper form 
and meaning. 

Isirection. —Correct the following errors, and give your reason? :— 
1. I done it myself. 2. He throwed it into the river, for I seen him 
when he done it. 3. She sets by the open window enjoying the scene 
that lays before her. 

Explanation.— Lay (to place) is transitive, lie (to rest) is intransitive ; aet (to 
place) is transitive, sit (to rest) is intransitive. Set in some of its meanings is intran- 
sitive. 

4. The tide sits in. 5. Go and lay down. 6. The sun sits in the 
west. 7. I remember when the corner-stone was lain. 8. Sit the 
plates on the table. 9. He sat out for London yesterday. 10. Your dress, 
sets well. 11. The bird is setting on its eggs. 12. I laid there an hour. 
13. Set down and talk a little while. 14. He has laid there an hour. 
15. I am setting by the river. 16. He has went and done it without 
my permission. 17. He flew from justice. 18. Some valuable land 
was overflown. 19. She come just after you left. 20. They sung a 
new tune which they had not sang before. 21. The water I drunk there 
was better than any that I had drank before. 22. The leaves had 
fell. 23. I had rode a short distance when the storm begun to gather. 
24. I found the water froze. 25. He raised up. 26. He run till he 
became so weary that he was forced to lay down. 27. I knowed that 
it was so, for I seen him when he done it. 28. I had began to think 
that you had forsook us. 29. I am afraid that I cannot learn him to 
do it. 30. I guess that I will stop. 31. Tell me where you live, and 
I will come to your house to-morrow. 32. I expect that he has 
gone to Boston. 33. There ain't any use of trying. 34. I have got no 
mother. 35. Can I speak to you ? 30. He had ought to see him. 

Explanation.— As ought is never a participle, it cannot be used after had to 
form a compound tense. 

Caution, — A conditional or a concessive clause requires 
a verb in the indicative mode when the action or being is 



Construction of Mode and Tense Forms. 223 

assumed as a fact, or when the uncertainty lies merely in 
the speaker's knowledge of the fact. But when the action 
or being is merely thought of as a future contingency, the 
subjunctive present is preferred. The subjunctive past of 
the verb be is used chiefly to express a wish or a mere sup- 
position contrary to the fact. 

Examples.— 1. If (= since) it rains, why do you go ? 

2. If it rains (now), I cannot go out. 

3. If it rain, the work will be delayed. 

4. If my friend were here, he would enjoy this. 

Explanation.— In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) there is a mere un- 
certainty of knowledge. It either rains or it does not rain— the speaker is uncertain 
which is the fact. In (3) no existing fact is referred to ; the raining is merely thought 
of as a future contingency. In (4) a mere supposition, contrary to the fact, is made. 
My friend's not being here is clearly implied. 

Remarks. — When there is doubt as 'to whether the indicative or the subjunctive 
mode is required, use the indicative. 

The present subjunctive forms may be treated as infinitives used to complete 
omitted auxiliaries ; as, If it (should) rain, the work will be delayed, Till one greater 
man (shall) restore us, etc. This will often serve as a guide in distinguishing the 
indicative from the subjunctive mode. 

If, though, lest, unless, etc., are usually spoken of as signs of the subjunctive mode, 
but they are now more frequently followed by the indicative than by the subjunc- 
tive mode. 

Direction.— Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the following sentences :— 
1. If this were so, the difficulty would vanish. 2. If he was there, 
I did not see him. 3. If to-morrow be fine, I will walk with you. 
4. Though this seems improbable, it is true. 5. If my friend is in 
town, he will call this evening-. 6. If he ever comes, we shall know it. 
Explanation. —In 6 and 7 the coming is referred to as a fact to be decided in fu- 
ture time. 

7. If he comes by noon, let me know. 8. The ship leaps, as it 
were, from billow to billow. 9. Take heed that thou speah not to 
Jacob. 10. If a pendulum is drawn to one side, it will swing to the 
other. 

Explanation. — Be is often employed in making scientific statements like the 
preceding, and may therefore be allowed ; but there is nothing in the nature of the 
case to justify such usage. If a pendulum is drawn, = Whenever a pendulum is 
drawn. 



224 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

11. I wish that I were a musician. 12. Were I disposed, I could 
not gratify you. 13. This sword shall end thee unless thou yield. 
14. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee. 15. I know not 
whether it is so or not. 

Direction.— Supply in eacli of the following sentences a verb in the indicative or 
the subjunctive mode, and give a reason for your choice :— 

1. I wish it in niy power to help you. 2. I tremble lest he 

. 3. If he guilty, the evidence does not show it. 4. He de- 
serves our pity, unless his tale a false one. 5. Though he 

there, I did not see him. 6. If he but discreet, he will succeed. 

7. If I he, I would do differently. 8. If ye men, fight. 



LESS©! 141, 

CONSTRUCTION OF *!ODE AND TENSE 
FORMS— CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Be careful to employ the tense forms of the 
different modes in accordance with their meaning, and in 
such a way as to preserve the proper order of time. 

Direction.— Correct the following errors, and give your reasons : — 
1. That custom has been formerly quite popular. 2. Neither will 
they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead. 3. He tfort was 
dead sat up and began to speak. 4. A man bought a horse for one 
hundred dollars ; and, after keeping it three months, at an expense of 
ten dollars a month, he sells it for two hundred dollars. What per 
cent does he gain ? 5. I wish I knew what time it was. G. I should 
say that it was an hour's ride. 7. If I had have seen him, I should 
have known him. 8. I wish I was in Dixie. 9. We should be 
obliged if you will favor us with a song. 10. I intended to have called. 

Explanation.— This is incorrect ; it should be, I intended to call. One does not 
intend to do what is already completed. 

Remark.— Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, /toping, intending, permit- 
ting, etc., are followed by verbs denoting present or future time. 

The 2)re.?e nt infinitive expresses an action aspresent or future, and the present. 2Mr- 
fect as completed, at the time indicated by the principal verb. I am glad to have met 
you is correct, because the meeting took place before the time of being glad. 



Construction of Mode and Tense Forms. 225 

I ought to hate gone is exceptional. Ought has no past tense form, and so the pres- 
ent perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to past time. 

11. We hoped to have seen you before. 12. I should not have let 
you eaten it. 13. I should have liked to have seen it. 14. He would 
not have dared done that. 15. You ought to have helped me to have 
done it. 16. We expected that he would have arrived last night. 
17. The experiment proved that air had weight. 

MemarJc— What is true or false at all times is generally expressed in the present 
tense, whatever tense precedes. 

There seems to he danger of applying this rule too rigidly. When a speaker does 
not wish to vouch for the truth of the general proposition, he may use the past tense, 
giving it the appearance of an indirect quotation; as, He said that iron was the most 
valuable of metals. The tense of the dependent verb is sometimes attracted into 
that of the principal verb ; as, I knew where the place was. 

18. I had never known before how short life really was. 19. We 
then fell into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent 
of utility. The General maintained that there was not ; Dr. Johnson 
maintained that there was. 20. I have already told you that I was a 
gentleman. 21. Our fathers held that all men were created equal. 

Caution. — Use will and would whenever the subject 
names the one whose will controls the action, and shall and 
should whenever the one named by the subject is under the 
control of external influence. 

Remark.— The original meaning of shall = to owe, to be obliged, and will = to 
determine, gives us the real key to their proper use. 

The only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these auxiliaries can- 
not be found is, when the subject of will names something incapable of volition ; 
as, The wind will blow. Even this may be a kind of personification. 

Examples.— I shall go, You will go. He will go. These are the proper forms to 
express mere futurity, but even here we can trace the original meaning of s?iall and 
irill. In the first person the speaker avoids egotism by referring to the act as an ob- 
ligation or duty rather than as something imder the control of his own will. In the 
second and third persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of others than to 
their duty. 

I will go. Here the action is under the control of the speaker's will. He either 
promises or determines to go. 

You shall go, He shall go. Here the speaker either promises the going or deter- 
mines to compel these persons to go ; in either case the actor is under some externa] 
influence. 

15 



226 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

Shall I got Here the speaker puts himself under the control of some external 
influence— the will of another. 

Will I got—i. e., Is it my will to go ?— is not used. It would he ahsurd for one to 
ask what his own will is. 

Shall you go? Ans. 1 shall. Will you got Ans.ltvill. Shall he got Atis. He 
shall. Will he got Ans. He will. The same auxiliary is used in the question that 
is used in the answer. 

No difficulty shall hinder me. The difficulty that might do the hindering is not to 
be left to itself, but is to be kept under the control of the speaker. 

You will see that my horse is at the door by nine o'clock. This is only an apparent 
exception to the rule. A superior may courteously avoid the appearance of compul- 
sion, and refer to his subordinate's willingness to obey. 

They knew that I should be there, and that he ivould be there. The same principles 
apply to should and would that apply to shall and will. In this example the events 
are future as to past time ; making them future as to present time, we have, They 
know that I shall be there, and that he will be there. 

My friend said that he should not set out to-morrow. Change the indirect to a 
direct quotation, and the force of should will be seen. 

Direction.— Assign a reason for the use of shall or will in each of the following 
sentences :— 

1. Hear me, for I will speak. 2. If you will call, I shall be happy 
to accompany you. 3. Shall you be at liberty, to-day? 4. I shall 
never see him again. 5. I will never see him again. 6. I said that 
he should be rewarded. 7. Thou shalt surely die. 8. Truth, crushed 
to earth, shall rise again. 9. Though I should die, yet will I not deny 
thee. 10. Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in 
mine hand, yet would I not put forth my hand against the king's son. 

Direction.— Fill each of the following blanks with shall, will, should, or would t 
and give the reasons for your choice : — 

1. He knew who betray him. 2. I be fatigued if I had 

walked so far. 3. You did better than I have done. 4. If he 

come by noon, you be ready ? 5. They do me wrong, and I 

not endure it. 6. I be greatly obliged if you do me 

the favor. 7. If I say so, I be guilty of falsehood. 8. You 

be disappointed if you see it. 9. he be allowed to 

go on ? 10. you be unhappy, if I do not come ? 

Direction.— Correct the following errors, and give your reasons :— 
1. Where will I leave you ? 2. Will I be in time ? 3. It was re- 
quested that no person would leave his seat. 4. They requested that 
the appointment would be given to a man who should be known to 
his party. 5. When will we get through this tedious controversy ? 



Construction of Number and Person Forms. 227 



LESSOR 142, 

CONSTRUCTION OF NUMBER AND PERSON 

FORMS. 

Agreement — Verbs — Pronouns. 

Caution* — A verb must agree with its subject in number 
and person. 

HemarJc.— Practically, this rule applies to but few forms. JLre and tvere are the 
only plural forms retained by the English verb. In the common style, most verbs 
have one person form, made by adding s or es (has, in the present perfect tense, is a 
contraction of the indicative present— ha(ve)s. The verb be has am (first person) 
and is (third person). 

In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending est, st, or t, 
and, in the indicative present, the third person singular adds eth. (See Lessons 134 
and 135.) 

Caution. — A collective noun requires a verb in the plu- 
ral when the individuals in the collection are thought of ; 
but, when the collection as a whole is thought of, the verb 
should be singular. 

Examples.— -1. The multitude tvere of one mind. 2. The multitude zvas too large 
to number. 3. A number were inclined to turn back. 4. The number present -was not 
ascertained. 

Caution. — When a verb has two or more subjects con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural. 

Exceptions.— 1. When the connected subjects are different names of the same 
thing, or when they name several things taken as one whole, the verb must be 
singular ; as, My old friend and schoolmate is in town. Bread and milk is excel- 
lent food. 

2. When singular subjects are preceded by each, every, or no, they are taken 
separately and require a singular verb ; as, Every man, woman, and child was lost. 

3. When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees with one 
and is understood to the other ; as, Love, and love only, is the loan for love. (The 
same is true of subjects connected by as well as ; as, Pompey, as well as Casar, icas 
a great general.) 

4. When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, the verb agrees 
with the affirmative ; as, Books, and not pleasure, occupy his time. 

5. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by 



228 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

making the verb agree with that which stands nearest ; as, Thine is the kingdom and 
toe, power and the glory. 

Caution. — When a verb has two or more singular sub- 
jects connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in 
the singular ; as, Neither poverty nor wealth was desired. 

Remark.— When the subjects are of different numbers or persons, the verb agrees 
with the nearest ; as, Neither he nor they were satisfied. 

W T hen a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural subject is generally placed 
next to the verb. 

In using pronouns of different persons, it is generally more polite for the speaker 
to mention the one addressed first, and himself last, except when he confesses a fault, 
or when, by using the pronoun we, he associates others with him. 

When the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is generally better to 
repeat the verb with each subject or to recast the sentence. 

Caution. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
number, gender, and person ; as, Thou who writest, he who 
writes, they who write, etc. 

The special Cautions given above for the agreement of 
the verb apply also to the agreement of the pronoun. 

Memarh.— These special directions for agreement maybe summed up in this: 
Let the meaning rather than the form control the agreement of the verb and of the 
pronoun. 

The pronoun yon, however, even when singular in meaning, requires a verb and a 
pronoun of the plural form. 

Direction.— Justify the use of the following italicized verbs and pronouns :— 
1. Books is a noun. 2. The good are great. 3. The committee 
were unable to agree, and they asked to be discharged. 4. The House 
has decided not to allow its members the privilege. 5. Three times 
four is twelve.* 6. Five dollars is not too much. 7. Twice as much 
is too much. 8. Two hours is a long time to wait. 9. To relieve the 
wretched was his pride. 10. To profess and to possess are two dif- 
ferent things. 11. Talking and eloquence are not the same. 12. The 

* " Three times four is twelve," and " Three times four are twelve " are both used, 
and both- may be defended. The question is (see Caution for collective nouns), Is 
the number four thought of as a whole, or are the individual units composing it 
thought of ? The expression — Four taken three times is twelve. Times is a noun 
used adverbially without a preposition. (See Lesson 35.) 



Construction of Number and Person Forms. 229 

tongs is not in its place. 13. Every one is accountable for Ms own 
acts. 14. Every book and every paper was found in its place. 15. Not 
a loud voice but strong proofs bring conviction. 16. This orator and 
statesman lias gone to Ms rest. 17. Young's "Night Thoughts"^ 
Ms most celebrated poetical work. 18. Flesh and blood Mith not 
revealed it. 19. The hue and cry of the country pursues him. 
20. The second and the third Epistle of John contains each a single 
chapter. 21. Man is masculine because it denotes a male. 22. There- 
in consists the force and use and nature of language. 23. Neither 
wealth nor wisdom is the chief thing. 24. Either you or I am right. 
25. Neither you nor he is to blame. 28. John, and his sister also, is 
going. 27. The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, is 
here protected in Ms right. 28. There are one or two reasons.* 
29. I believe that there is not more than one copy extant. 30. Mexi- 
can figures, or picture- writing, represent things, not words, f 
Direction.— Correct the following errors, and give your reasons :— 
1. Victuals are always singular. 2. Plutarch's "Parallel Lives" 
are his great work. 3. What sounds have each of the vowels ? 4. No, 
no, says I. 5. We agree, says they. 6. Where was you ? 7. Every 
one of these are good in their place. 8. Neither of them have re- 
cited their lesson. 9. There comes the boys. 10. Each of these ex- 
pressions denote action. 11. One of you are mistaken. 12. There is 
several reasons for this. 13. The assembly was divided in its opin- 
ion. 14. The public is invited to attend. 15. The committee were 
full when this point was decided. 16. The nation are prosperous. 
17. Money, as well as men, were needed. 18. Now, boys, I want 
every one of you to decide for themselves. 19. Neither the intellect 
nor the heart are capable of being driven. 20. She fell to laughing 
like one out of their right mind. 21. Five years' interest are due. 
22. Three quarters of the men was discharged. 23. Nine tenths of 
every man's happiness depend upon this. 24. No time, no money, no 
labor, were spared. 25. One or the other have erred in their state- 
ment. 26. Why are dust and ashes proud ? 27. Either the master or 

* When two adjectives differing in number are connected without a repetition of 
the noun, the tendency is to make the verb agree with the noun expressed. 

t The verb here agrees with figures, as picture-writing is logically explanatory of 
figures. (See Lesson 33.) 



230 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

his servants is to blame. 28. Neither the servants nor their master 
are to blame. 29. Our welfare and security consists in unity. 30. The 
mind, and not the body, sin. 

To the Teacher.— These exercises may profitably be continued by requiring the 
pupils to compose sentences illustrating those constructions in which mistakes are 
liable to be made. 



LESSOR H8. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Lesson 112. — What are Modifications ? What are forms or inflec- 
tions ? What is their office ? Have English words many inflections ? 
Have they lost any? What is Number? Distinguish between the 
singular and the plural number. How is the plural of nouns regu- 
larly formed ? In what ways may the plural be formed irregularly? 
Illustrate. 

Lesson 113. — Give the plural of some nouns adopted from other lan- 
guages. How do compounds form the plural ? Illustrate the several 
ways. How do letters, figures, etc., form the plural? Illustrate. 

Lesson 114. — Give examples of nouns having each two forms dif- 
fering in meaning. Some which have the same form in both numbers. 
Some which have no plural. Some which are always plural. What 
is said of the number of collective nouns ? 

Lesson 116. — In what four ways may the number of nouns be deter- 
mined ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 117. — What is Gender? What are the genders? What is 
the difference between sex and gender ? The gender of English nouns 
follows what ? Have English nouns a neuter form ? Have all English 
nouns a masculine and & feminine form ? In what three ways may the 
masculine of nouns be distinguished from the feminine ? Illustrate. 
Give the three gender forms of the pronoun. 

Lesson 118. — How is gender in grammar important ? When is the 
pronoun of the masculine gender used? When is the neuter pro- 
noun it used ? By what pronouns are inanimate things personified ? 
In personification, when is the masculine pronoun used, and when the 
feminine ? Illustrate. What is the Caution in this Lesson ? 



Review Questions. 231 

Lesson 119. — What is Person ? Is the person of nouns marked by 
form ? Name and define the three persons. When is a noun in the 
first person ? In the second person ? What classes of words have 
distinctive person forms ? Why is person regarded in grammar ? What 
is Case ? Name and define the three cases. What is the case of a 
noun used independently ? Of an explanatory modifier? Of an object- 
ive complement ? Of a noun or pronoun used as attribute comple- 
ment ? Illustrate all these. 

Lesson 121. — What is Parsing? Illustrate the parsing of nouns. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Lesson 122. — Howniany case forms have nouns, and what are they? 
How is the possessive of nouns in the singular formed ? Of nouns in 
the plural ? Illustrate. What is the possessive sign ? To which word 
of compound names or of groups of words treated as such is the sign 
added? Illustrate. Instead of the possessive form, what may be 
used ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 123. — In what case only can mistakes in construction occur, 
and why ? Give and illustrate fully the Cautions in this Lesson. 

Lesson 124. — What is Declension? Decline ^>£ and tooth. Decline 
the several personal pronouns, the relative, simple and compound, and 
the interrogative. What adjective pronouns are declined wholly 
or in part? Illustrate. 

Lesson 125. — What words in the language have each three different 
case forms ? What are the nominative, and what the objective forms 
of the pronouns ? 

Lesson 127. — What one modification have adjectives? What is 
Comparison? Name and define the three degrees. How are adjec- 
tives regularly compared ? What are the Rules for Spelling ? Illus- 
trate them. How are adjectives of more than one syllable generally 
compared ? How are degrees of diminution expressed ? Can all adjec- 
tives be compared ? How are some adverbs compared ? Hlustrate the 
irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs. 

Lesson 128. — To how many things does the comparative degree re- 



232 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

fer ? What does it imply ? May the superlative be used to compare 
two things? What word usually follows the comparative, and whtit 
the superlative ? Give the Cautions in this Lesson, and illustrate them 
folly. 

Lesson 129. — What is Voice? Of what class of verbs is it a modifi- 
cation ? Name and define the two voices. When is the one voice 
used, and when the other ? Into what may the passive form be re- 
solved ? Illustrate. What may be mistaken for a verb in the passive 
voice ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 180. — In changing a verb from the active to the passive, 
what does the object complement become? How may an intransitive 
verb sometimes be made transitive ? Illustrate. 



LISSOM I4S. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Lesson 131. — What is Mode? Name and define the four modes. 
What is Tense ? Name and define the six tenses. Define the infini- 
tive. Name and define the classes of participles. What are the num- 
ber and person of a verb ? 

Lesson 132. — What is Conjugation? Synopsis? What are auxil- 
iary verbs ? Name them. What are the principal parts of a verb ? 
What are redundant and what are defective verbs ? 

Lesson 134. — How many forms have irregular verbs ? How many 
have regular verbs ? What is said of the subjunctive mode ? Of to 
with the infinitive ? How is a verb conjugated in the emphatic form ? 

Lesson 136. — How is a verb conjugated in the progressive form? 
How is a transitive verb conjugated in the passive voice ? Give an 
example of a verb in the progressive form with a passive meaning. 
What does the progressive form denote ? Can all verbs be conjugated 
in this form? With what meaning is this form sometimes used? 
Illustrate. Give all the participles of the verbs choose, oreak, drive, 
read, lift. 

Lesson 137. — How may a verb be conjugated interrogatively ? Neg- 
atively ? Illustrate. How may a question with negation be expressed 
in the indicative and potential modes ? 



Additional Examples for Analysis. 233 

Lesson 138. — Into what may the compound and periphrastic forms 
of the verb be resolved? Illustrate fully. What is said of the par- 
ticiple in have written, had written, etc.? Analyze may have been 
written. Give and illustrate the several uses of the six tenses. 

Lesson 140. — Give and correct the more prominent errors under the 
first Caution. When does a conditional or a concessive clause require 
the verb to be in the indicative? Illustrate. When is the subjunc- 
tive preferred ? Illustrate. How is the subjunctive past of the verb 
be used ? 

Lesson 141. — What is the first Caution in this Lesson ? Give and 
correct some of the more common errors under it. Give the Caution 
in regard to will and would, shall and should. Illustrate the Caution. 

Lesson 142. — Give and illustrate the Cautions in this Lesson. Illus- 
trate the Exceptions and the Remarks. 

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 

On this question of principle, while actual suffering was yet afar off, 
they [our fathers] raised their flag against a power to which, for pur- 
poses of foreign conquest and subjugation, Rome, in the height of her 
glory, is not to be compared ; a power which has dotted over the sur- 
face of the whole globe with her possessions and military posts ; whose 
morning drum-beat, following the sun, and keeping company with the 
hours, circles the earth daily with one continuous and unbroken strain 
of the martial airs of England. — Webster. 

In some far-away and yet undreamt-of hour, I can even imagine that 
England may cast all thoughts of possessive wealth back to the bar- 
baric nations among whom they first arose ; and that, while the sands 
of the Indus and adamant of Golconda may yet stiffen the housings 
of the charger, and flash from the turban of the slave, she, as a Chris- 
tian mother, may at last attain to the virtues and the treasures of a 
Heathen one, and be able to lead forth her Sons, saying, — " These are 
my Jewels." — Buskin, 

And, when those who have rivalled her [Athens] greatness shall have 
shared her fate ; when civilization and knowledge shall have fixed their 
abode in distant continents ; when the sceptre shall have passed away 
from England ; when, perhaps, travellers from distant regions shall in 



234 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 

vain labor to decipher on some mouldering pedestal the name of our 
proudest chief ; shall hear savage hymns chanted to some misshapen 
idol over the ruined dome of our proudest temple, and shall see a single 
naked fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand masts, 
— her influence and her glory will still survive, fresh in eternal youth, 
exempt from mutability and decay, immortal as the intellectual prin- 
ciple from which they derived their origin, and over which they exer- 
cise their control. — Macaulay. 

To him who in the love of Nature holds 

Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 

A various language ; for his gayer hours 

She has a voice of gladness and a smile 

And eloquence of beauty, and she glides 

Into his darker musings, with a mild 

And healing sympathy, that steals away 

Their sharpness, ere he is aware. When thoughts 

Of the last bitter hour come like a blight 

Over thy spirit, and sad images 

Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall, 

And breathless darkness, and the narrow house, 

Make thee to shudder, and grow sick at heart ; — 

Go forth, under the open sky, and list 

To Nature's teachings, while from all around — 

Earth and her waters, and the depths of air, — 

Comes a still voice. — Bryant. 

Pleasant it was, when woods were green, 

And winds were soft and low, 
To lie amid some sylvan scene, 
Where, the long drooping boughs between, 
Shadows dark and sunlight sheen 

Alternate come and go ; 
Or where the denser grove receives 

No sunlight from above, 
But the dark foliage interweaves 
In one unbroken roof of leaves, 
Underneath whose sloping eaves 

The shadows hardly move. — Longfellow. 



Additional Examples for Analysis. 235 

I like the lad, who, when his father thought 

To clip his morning nap by hackneyed praise 

Of vagrant worm by early songster caught, 

Cried, " Served him right ! 'tis not at all surprising ; 

The worm was punished, sir, for early rising." — Saxe. 

There were communities, scarce known by name 
In these degenerate days, but once far-famed, 
Where liberty and justice, hand in hand, 
Ordered the common weal ; where great men grew 
Up to their natural eminence, and none 
Saving the wise, just, eloquent, were great ; 
Where power was of God's gift, to whom he gave 
Supremacy of merit ; the sole means 
And broad highway to power, that ever then 
Was meritoriously administered, 
Whilst all its instruments from first to last, 
The tools of state for service high or low, 
Were chosen for their aptness to those ends 
Which virtue meditates. — Henry Taylor. 

Stranger, these gloomy boughs 
Had charms for him ; and here he loved to sit, 
His only visitants a straggling sheep, 
The stone-chat, or the glancing sand-piper : 
And on these barren rocks, with fern and heath 
And juniper and thistle sprinkled o'er, 
Fixing his downcast eye, he many an hour 
A morbid pleasure nourished, tracing here 
An emblem of his own unfruitful life : 
And, lifting up his head, he then would gaze 
On the more distant scene, — how lovely 'tis 
Thou seest, — and he would gaze till it became 
Far lovelier, and his heart could not sustain 
The beauty, still more beauteous. — Wordsicorth. 

But when the next sun brake from underground, 
Then, those two brethren slowly with bent brows 
Accompanying, the sad chariot-bier 



236 Modifications of the Parts of Speech* 

Past like a shadow thro' the field, that shone 

Full-summer, to that stream whereon the barge, 

Pall'd all its length in blackest samite, lay. 

There sat the life-long creature of the house, 

Loyal, the dumb old servitor, on deck, 

Winking his eyes, and twisted all his face. 

So those two brethren from the chariot took 

And on the black decks laid her in her bed, 

Set in her hand a lily, o'er her hung 

The silken case with braided blazonings, 

And kiss'd her quiet brows, and saying to her, 

" Sister, farewell forever," and again, 

"Farewell, sweet sister," parted all in tears. — Tennyson. 

Good name in man and woman, dear my lord, 

Is the immediate jewel of their souls : 

Who steals my purse, steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing ; 

'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands ; 

But he that filches from me my good name 

Robs me of that which not enriches him, 

And makes me poor indeed. — Shakespeare. 

When I consider how my life is spent 

Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, 

And that one talent, which is death to hide, 

Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent 

To serve therewith my Maker, and present 

My true account, lest he, returning, chide ; 

"Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?" 

I fondly ask : but Patience, to prevent 

That murmur, soon replies, ' ' God doth not need 

Either man's work or his own gifts ; who best 

Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best : his state 

Is kingly ; thousands at his bidding speed, 

And post o'er land and ocean without rest ; 

They also serve who only stand and wait." 

— Milton. — Sonnet on Ms Blindness. 
To the Teacher.— Require the pupils to change the poetry, above, into prose. 
Make other selections, and continue the exercise. 



COMPOSITION. 



LESS©#§ 446. 



SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CAPITAL 
LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 

Capital Letteks, Terminal Marks, and the Comma. 

Capital Letters, — The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of 
poetry, (3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct ques- 
tion introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately 
numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin 
with a capital letter (5) proper names and words derived from them, 
(6) names of things personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in 
capital letters (8) the words I and 0, and (9) numbers in the Roman 
notation. 

Period, — Place a period after (1) a declarative sentence, (2) an 
abbreviation, and (3) a number written in the Roman notation. 

Interrogation Point, — Every direct interrogative sentence 
should be followed by an interrogation point. 

Exclamation Point. — All exclamatory expressions must be 
followed by the exclamation point. 

Comma, — Set off by the comma (1) a phrase out of its natural 
order or not closely connected with the word it modifies, (2) an ex- 
planatory modifier which does not restrict the modified term or com- 
bine closely with it, (3) a participle used as an adjective modifier, with 
the words belonging to it, unless restrictive, (4) the adjective clause, 
when not restrictive, (5) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows 
and restricts the word it modifies, (6) a word or phrase independent or 
nearly so, (7) a direct quotation, unless formally introduced, (8) a noun 



238 Co nip os it io n . 



clause used as an attribute complement, and (9) a term connected to 
another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by the comma 
(10) connected words and phrases, unless all the conjunctions are ex- 
pressed, (11) independent clauses, when short and closely connected, 
and (12) the parts of a compound predicate, and other phrases, when 
long or differently modified. Use (13) the comma when it is needed 
to prevent ambiguity. 

Direction.— Give the Rule for each capital letter and each mark of punctuation, 
except the colon and the semicolon, in these sentences :— 

1. Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry III., three sons of Catherine de Medici and 
Henry II., sat upon the French throne. 2. The pupil asked, "When shall I use 0, 
and when shall I use oh ?" 3. Purity of style forbids us to use : 1. Foreign words ; 
2. Obsolete words ; 3. Low words, or slang. 4. It is easy, Mistress Dial, for yon, who 
have always, as everybody knows, set yourself up above me, to accuse one of lazi- 
ness. 5. He rushed into the field, and, foremost fighting, fell. 6. The Holy Land 
was, indeed, among the early conquests of the Saracens, Caliph Omar having, in 637, 
A. D., taken Jerusalem. 7. The first maxim among philosophers, and men of sense 
everywhere is, that merit only, should make distinctions. 

8. No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet, 
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet ! 

Direction.— U*e capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sen- 
tences, and give your reasons : — 

1. and lo from the assembled crowd 
there rose a shout prolonged and loud 
that to the ocean seemed to say 

take her o bridegroom old and gray. 

2. a large rough mantle of sheepskin fastened around the loins by a girdle or belt of 
hide was the only covering of that strange solitary man clijah the tishbitc 3. the 
result however of the three years' reign or tyranny of jas ii was that wm of orange 
came over from holland and without shedding a drop of blood became a d 1688 wm 
iii of england 4. o has three sounds : 1. that in not ; 2. that in note ; 3. that in move 
5. lowell asks and what is so rare as a day in June 6. spring is a fickle mistress 
but summer is more staid 7. if i may judge by his gorgeous colors and the exquisite 
sweetness and variety of his music autumn i should say is the poet of the family 



Summary of Rules — Continued. 239 



SUMMARY OF RULES— CONTINUED. 
Semicolon and Colon. 

Semicolon, — Independent clauses (1) slightly connected, or (2) 
when themselves divided by the conima, must be separated by the 
semicolon. Use the semicolon (3) between phrases or clauses having 
a common dependence on something which precedes or follows, and 
(4) before as, viz., to icit, namely, i. e., and that is, when they intro- 
duce examples or illustrations. 

Direction.— Justify each capital letter and each, mark of punctuation in these 
sentences:— 

1. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood ; but it will stand, and it will richly 
compensate for both. 2. Some words are delightful to the ear ; as, Ontario, golden, 
oriole. 3. The shouts of revelry had died away ; the roar of Ihe lion had ceased ; the 
last loiterer had retired from the banquet ; and the lights in the palace of the victor 
were extinguished. 4. Send it to the public halls ; proclaim it there ; let them hear 
it who heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon ; let them see it who saw their 
brothers and their sons fall on the field of Bunker Hill ; and the very walls will cry 
out in its support. 

Direction.— Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sen- 
tences, and give your reasons :— 

1. all parts of a plant reduce to three namely root stem and leaf 2. when the world 
is dark with tempests when thunder rolls and lightning flies thou lookest in thy 
beauty from the clouds and laughest at the storm 3. the oaks of the mountains fall 
the mountains themselves decay with years the ocean shrinks and grows again the 
moon herself is lost in heaven 4. kenncdy taking from her a handkerchief edged 
with gold pinned it over her eyes the executioners holding her by the arms led her to 
the block and the queen kneeling down said repeatedly with a firm voice into thy 
hands o lord i commend my spirit 

Colon, — Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence, when 
these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon ; and (2) before a 
quotation or an enumeration of particulars, when formally introduced. 

Direction.— Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these 
sentences : — 
1. You may swell every expense, and strain every effort, still more extravagantly ; 



240 Composition. 



accumulate every assistance you can beg and borrow ; traffic and barter with every 
little, pitiful German Prince that sells and sends his subjects to the shambles of a 
foreign country : your efforts are forever vain and impotent. 2. This is a precept 

of Socrates: " Know thyself." 

Direction.— -Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sen- 
tences, and give your reasons :— 

1. the advice given ran thus take care of the minutes and the hours will take care 
of themselves 2. we may abound in meetings and movements enthusiastic gather- 
ings in field and forest may kindle all minds with a common sentiment but it is all in 
vain if men do not retire from the tumult to the silent culture of every right disposi- 
tion 

Direction.— Write sentences illustrating the several uses of the semicolon, tfee 
colon, and the comma. 



LESSOU 448. 

SUMMARY OF RULES— CONTINUED. 

The Dash, Marks of Parenthesis, Apostrophe, Hyphen, Quo- 
tation Marks, and Brackets. 
Dash. — Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or 
figures and (2) of such words as as, namely, or that is, introducing 
illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the 
sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a 
slight suspension, or another takes its place, and (4) before a word or 
phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used 
(5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) even follow other 
marks, each mark retaining its usual force. 

Direction.— Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in those 
sentences :— 

1. The most noted kings of Israel were the three first— Saul, David, and Solomon. 

2. In E s, xx. 1—18, you may find the ten commandments. 3. And— "This to 

mc?" he said. 4. Assyria, Greece, Rome, Carthage— what are they? 5. I do not 
rise to fawn or cringe to this House ;— I do not rise to supplicate you to be merciful 
toward the nation to which I belong,— toward a natiou which, though subject to 
England, yet is distinct from it. C. We know the uses— and sweet they are— of 
adversity. 



Summary of Rules — Continued. 241 

Direction.— Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sen- 
tences, and give your reasons :— 

1. the human species is composed of two distinct races those who borrow and those 
who lend 2. this bill this infamous bill the way it has been received by the house 
the manner in which its opponents have been treated the personalities to which they 
have been subjected all these things dissipate my doubts 3. during the winter of 
1775 6 gen w n was besieging b n 4. lord marmion turned well was his need 
and dashed his rowels in his steed 

Marks of Parenthesis. — Marks of parenthesis may be used to 
enclose what lias no essential connection with the rest of the sentence. 

Apostrophe. — Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of 
letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and 
(3) to distinguish the possessive from other cases. 

Hyphen. — Use the hyphen (-) (1) to join the parts of compound 
words, and (2) between the syllables when a word is divided. 

Quotation Marks. — Use quotation marks to enclose a copied 
word or passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, this is enclosed 
within single marks. 

Brackets. — Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting another's 
words, you insert by way of explanation or correction. 
Direction.— Justify the marks of punctuation used in these sentences :— 
1. Luke says, Acts xxi. 15, "We took up otir carriages [luggage], and went up to 
Jerusalem." 2. The last sentence of the composition was, "I close in the words of 
Patrick Henry, ' Give me liberty, or give me death.' " 3. Tdegraph-pole is a recent 
compound ; telegraph is divided thus : tel-e-graph. 4. The profound learning of 
Sir Win. Jones (he was master of twenty-eight languages) was the wonder of his con- 
temporaries. 5. By means of the apostrophe you know that love in motliers' love is 
a noun, and that Vs isn't the verb. 

Direction.— Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sen- 
tences, and give your reasons :— 

1. next to a conscience void of offence without which by the bye life isnt worth the 
living is the enjoyment of the social feelings 2. man the life boat 3. dont neglect in 
writing to dot your is cross your"fe and make your 7s unlike your 9s and dont in speak- 
ing omit the hs from such words as which when and why or insert rs in law saic and 
raw 4. the scriptures tell us take no thought anxiety for the morrow 5. the speaker 
said american oratory rose to its high water mark in that great speech ending liberty 
and union now and forever one and inseparable 

16 



242 Composition. 



LISSOM 440. 



CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION- 
REVIEW. 

Direction.— Give the reason for each capital letter and each mark of punctuation 
in these sentences : — 

1. A bigot's mind is like the pupil of the eye ; the more light you pour upon it, the 
more it contracts. 2. This is the motto of the University of Oxford : "The Lord is 
my light." 3. The only fault ever found with him is, that he sometimes fights ahead 

of his orders. 4. The land flowing with " milk and honey " (see N s, xiv. 8.) was 

a long, narrow strip, lying along the eastern edge, or coast, of the Mediterranean, and 
consisted of three divisions ; namely, 1. On the north, Galilee ; 2. On the south, 
Judea ; 3. In the middle, Samaria. 5. " What a lesson," Trench well says, " the 
word ' diligence ' contains ! " 

6. An honest man, my neighbor,— there he stands- 
Was struck,— struck like a dog, by one who wore 
The badge of Ursini ! 

7. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State, 
Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! 

8. O'Connell asks, " The clause which does away with trial by jury— what, in the 
name of Heaven, is it, if it is not the establishment of a revolutionary tribunal ?" 
9. There are only three departments of the mind— the intellect, the feelings, and the 
will. 10. This— trial ! 11. American nationality has made the desert to bud and blos- 
som as the rose ; it has quickened to life the giant brood of useful arts ; it has whit- 
ened lake and ocean with the sails of a daring, new, and lawful trade ; it has ex- 
tended to exiles, flying as clouds, the asylum of our better liberty. 12. As I saw him 
[Webster, the day before his great reply to Colonel Hayne of South Carolina] in the 
evening, (if I may borrow an illustration from his favorite amusement) he was as un- 
concerned and as free of spirit as some here have seen him, while floating in his lish- 
ing-boat along a hazy shore, gently rocking on the tranquil tide, dropping his line 

' here and there with the varying fortune of the sport. The next morning he was like 
some mighty admiral, dark and terrible, casting the Ion:: shadow of his frowning 
tiers far over the sea, that seemed to sink beneath him ; his broad pendant stream- 
ing at the main, the stars and stripes at the fore, the mizzen, and the peak ; and bear- 
ing down like a tempest upon his antagonist, with all his canvas strained to the 
wind, and all his thunders roaring from his broadsides. 

To the Teacher.— If further work in punctuation is needed, require the pupils to 
justify the punctuation of the sentences beginning page — . 



Qualities of Style. 243 

LllSOff 4I© 9 

QUALITIES OF STYLE. 

Style is the manner in which one expresses himself, and 
in some respects it must reflect the writer. But there are 
some cardinal qualities which all good style must possess. 

Perspicuity.— Perspicuity is opposed to obscurity and ambiguity, and so means 
clearness of expression. This is an indispensable quality ; if the thought is not 
understood, or is misunderstood, it might as well have been left unuttered. 

Perspicuity depends mainly upon these few things ; — . 

1. One's Clear Understanding- of what he attempts to say.— You can- 
not express to others more than you thoroughly know, or make your thought clearer 
to them than it is to yourself. 

2. The TJnity of the Sentence.— Many thoughts, or thoughts with no natural 
^d close connection with each other, should not be crowded into one sentence. 

3. The Use of the Right Words.— Use such words as convey your thought- 
each word expressing exactly your idea, no more, no less, no other. Do not omit 
words when they are needed. Be cautious in the use of he, s7ie, it, and they. Use 
simple words, such as others can readily understand, avoiding bookish terms, words 
that have passed out of use, and those that have no footing in the language— foreign 
terms, words newly coined, and slang. 

4. A Happy Arrangement. — The relations of words to each other should be 
obvious at a glance. The sentence should not need re-arrangement to disclose the 
meaning, or to unite dislocated parts. 

Energy.— By energy we mean vigor of expression. In ordinary discourse, it is not 
always to be sought. We use it when we wish to convince the intellect, arouse the 
feelings, and take captive the will— lead one to do something. When energetic, we 
select words for strength and not for beaut}' ; choose specific, and not general, terms ; 
use few words and crowd them dense with thought ; place subordinate clauses before 
the independent, and the strongest clause of the sentence, sentence of the paragraph, 
and point of the discourse last. The thought is usually charged with intense feeling, 
and requires an impassioned delivery. 

Imagery— Figures of Speech.— Things stand in many relations to each other, 
some of which are these : they resemble each other in some particular ; they stand 



244 Composition. 



one to another as part to a whole, or as whole to a part ; they are associated by 
having been so long together that one suggests the other. Figures of Speech are 
those expressions in which, departing from our ordinary style in speaking of things, 
we assert or assume any of these relations. Imagery adds beauty to style, but it also 
makes the thought clearer and stronger— a diamond brooch may do duty as well as 
adorn. 

A Sintile is a figure in which we assert a resemblance be- 
tween two things otherwise unlike ; as, The gloom of de- 
spondency hung like a cloud over the land. 

A Metaphor is a figure in which, assuming the resem- 
blance between two things, we bring over and apply to one 
of them the term which denotes the other ; as, Who carried 
your flag into the very chops of the British Channel, and 
bearded the lion in his den? 

A Synecdoche is a figure in which the name of a part 
denotes the whole, or the name of the whole denotes the 
part; as, All hands to the pumps! The Xew World is 
geologically the oldest. 

A Metonymy is a figure in which the name of one thing 
long associated with another is taken to denote that other ; 
as, Please address the chair. One needs to listen to the 
organ before reading Milton. 

Variety.— Variety is a quality of style opposed to uniformity. Nothing in dis- 
course pleases more than light and shade— the same word not appearing with offensive 
frequency ; long words alternating with short, and long sentences with short ; the 
natural order now and then yielding to the transposed ; clauses having no rigidly fixed 
position; sentences, heavy and moving slow, elbow to elbow with the light and trip- 
ping ; figures sparkling here and there from out the setting of plain language ; the 
verb in the assertive form frequently giving way to the participle and the infinitive, 
which assume ; the full method of statement followed by the contracted ; in a word, 
no one form or method continuing so long as to weary, but alternating with another, 
and keeping the reader fresh and fascinated throughout. 

To the Teacher. — Question the pupils upon every point taken up in this Lesson, 
requiring them to give illustrations, where it is possible. 



Perspicuity — Criticism. 245 

LESSOR III. 

PERSPICUITY— CRITICISM. 

General Direction.— In ail your work in Composition, attend carefully to the 
punctuation. 
Direction.— Point out the faults, and recast these sentences, making them clear :— 

* 1. He was locked in and so he sat still till the guard came and let him out, as soon 
as he stepped out on the ground, he saw the dead and dying laying about everywhere. 
2. They used to ring a large bell at six o'clock in the morning for us to get up, then 
we had half an hour to dress in, after which we would go to Chapel exercises, then 
breakfast, school would commence at nine o'clock and closed at four in the afternoon 
allowing an hour for dinner from one until two then we would resume our studies until 
four in the afternoon. 3. Jewelry was worn in the time of King Pharaoh which is 
many thousand years before Christ in the time when the Israelites left they borrowed 
all the jewels of the Egyptians which were made of gold and silver. 4. When it 
is made of gold they can not of pure gold but has to be mixed with some other metal 
which is generally copper which turns it a reddish hue in some countries they use 
silver which gives it a whitish hue but in the United States and England they use both 
silver and copper but the English coins are the finest. 

Direction. —Point out the faults, and recast these sentences, making them clear : — 

Some may have each many meanings ; give these. 

1. James's son, Charles I., before the breath was out of his body was proclaimed 
king in his stead. 2. He told the coachman that he would be the death of him, if he 
did not take care what he was about, and mind what he said. 3. Richelieu said to the 
king that Mazarin would carry out his policy. 4. He was overjoyed to see him, and 
he sent for one of his workmen, and told him to consider himself at his service. 
5. Blake answered the Spanish priest that if he had sent in a complaint, he would 
have punished the sailors severely ; but he took it ill that he set the Spaniards on to 
punish them. 

Direction.— Place these subordinate clauseswhere they will remove the obscurity, 
and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged :— 

1. The moon cast a pale light on the graves that were scattered around, as it peered 
above the horizon. 2. A large mimber of seats were occupied by pupils that had no 
backs. 3. Crusoe was surprised at seeing five canoes on the shore which belonged to 

* These four sentences and others in these Lessons, given just as we found them, 
have been culled from school compositions. 



246 Composition. 



the savages. 4. This tendency will be headed off by approximations which will be 
made of the written word to the spoken. 5. People had to travel on horseback and 
in wagons, which was a very slow way, if they travelled at all. 6. How can brethren 
partake of their Father's blessing that curse each other? 7. Two men will be tried for 
crimes in this town at that time which are punishable with death, if a full court 
should attend. 

Direction.— Each of these sentences may have two meanings ; supply two ellipses, 
and remove the ambiguity :— 

1. Let us trust no strength less than thine. 2. Study had more attraction for him 
than his friend. 3. He did not like the new teacher so well as his playmates. 4. He 
aimed at nothing less than the crown. 5. Lovest thou me more than these ? 



LISSOM |§2. 

PERSPICUITY— CRITICISM. 

Direction.— Place these italicized phrases where they will remove the obscurity, 
and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged : — 

1. These designs any man who is a Briton in any situation ought to disavow. 2. The 
chief priests, mocking, said among themselves with the scribes, " He saved,'" etc. 
3. nay is given to horses as well as corn to distend the stomach. 4. Boston has forty 
first class grammar-schools, exclusive of Dorchester. 5. He rode to town, and drove 
twelve cows on horseback. 6. He could not face an enraged father in spite of his 
effrontery. 7. Two owls sat upon a tree which grew near an old wall out of a heap of 
rubbish. 8. I spent most on the river and in the river of the time I stayed there. 
9. He wanted to go to sea, although contrary to the wishes of his parents, at the age of 
eighteen. 10. I have a wife and six children, and I have never seen one of than. 

Direction.— Place these italicized words and phrases where they will remove 
ambiguity, and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged :— 

1. In Paris, every lady in full dress rides. 2. I saw my friend when I was in 
Boston walking down Tremont street. 3. The transfers made, as a whole, strengthen 
rather than otherwise the new administration. 4. What is his coming or going to you ? 
5. We do those things frequently which we repent of afterwards. 6. I rushed out 
leaving the wretch with his tale half told, horror-stricken <if his r/i//><:. 7. Exclama- 
tion points are scattered up and down the page by compositors without any mercy, 
8. I want to make a present to one who is fond of chickens for a Christmas gift. 



Energy — Criticism. 247 

Direction.— Make these sentences clear by using simpler words and phrases : — 
1. A devastating conflagration raged. 2. He conducted her to the altar of Hymen. 
3. A donkey has an abnomial elongation of auricular appendages. 4. Are you 
excavating a subterranean canal? 5. It is difficult to determine what is the proper 
observation of Sunday. 6. He made a sad faux pas. 7. A net-work is anything 
reticulated or decussated, with interstices at equal distances between the intersections. 
8. Diligence is the sine qua non of success. 9. She has donned the habiliments of woe. 
10. The deceased was to-day interred in the cemetery. 11. The inmates proceeded to 
the sanctuary . 12. I have partaken of my morning repast. 13. He took the initiative 
in inaugurating the ceremony. 



•sson 



ENERGY— CRITICISM. 

Direction.— Expand these brief expressions into sentences full of long words, and 
note the loss of energy :— 

1. To your tents, O Israel! 2. Up, boys, and at them ! 3. Indeed! 4. Bah! 5. Don't 
give up the ship ! 6. Murder will out ! 7. Oh ! 8. Silence there ! 9. Hurrah ! 10. Death 
or free speech ! 11. Eascal ! 12. No matter. 13. Least said, soonest mended. 14. Death 
to the tyrant ! 15. I'll none of it. 16. Help, ho ! 17. Now for it. 18. First come, 
first served. 

Direction. — Condense these italicized expressions into one or two words, and 
note the gain : — 

1. He shuffled off this mortal coil yesterday. 2. The author surpassed all those who 
were living at the same time with him. 3. To say that revelation is a thing which 
there is no need of is to talk wildly. 4. He departed this life. 5. Some say that ever 
''gainst that season comes zvherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated this bird of dawning 
singeth all night long. 

Direction. — Change these specific words to general terms, and note the loss in 
energy :— 

1. Don't fire till you see the whites of their eyes. 2. Break down the dikes, give 
Holland back to ocean. 3. I hate him for he is a Christian. 4. I sat at her cradle, 
Ifollotoed her hearse. 5. Their daggers have stabbed Ctesar. 6. When I'm meal. I 
weigh a ton. 7. Burn Moscow, starve back the invaders. 8. There's no use in cry- 
ing over spilt milk. 9. In proportion as men delight in battles and bull-fights will they 
punish by hanging, burning, and the rack. 



248 Composition. 



Direction.— Change these general terms to specific words, and note the gain in 
energy :— 

1. Anne Boleyn was executed. 2. It were better for him that a heavy weight were fast- 
ened to him and that he were submerged in the waste of waters. 3. The capital of the 
chosen people was destroyed by a Roman general. 4. Consider the flowers how they in- 
crease in size. 5. Caesar was slain by the conspirators. 6. Tlie cities of the plain were 
annihilated. 

Direction. — Arrange these words, phrases, and clauses, in the order of their 
strength, placing the strongest last, and note the gain in energy : — 

1. The nations of the earth repelled, surrounded, pursued, and resisted him. 2. He 
was no longer consul nor citizen nor general nor even an emperor, but a prisoner and 
an exile. 3. I shall die an American ; I live an American ; I was born an American. 
4. All that I am, all that I hope to be, and all that I have in this life, I am now ready 
here to stake upon it. 5. I shall defend it without this House, in all places, and within 
this House ; at all times, in time of peace and in time of war. 6. We must fight if we 
wish to be free, if we mean to preserve inviolate our rights, if we do not mean to 
abandon the struggle. 



tmmn i§4. 

FIGURES OF SPEECH— CRITICISM. 

Direction. — Name these figures of speech, and then recast each sentence, using 
plain language, and note the loss of beauty and force :— 

1. Lend me your ears. 2. The robin knows when your grapes have cooked long 
enough in the sun. 3. A day will come when bidlets and bombs shall be replaced by 
ballots. 4. Caesar were no lion were not Romans hinds. 5. The soul of Jonathan was 
knit to that of David. 6. Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 7. He will bring 
down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. 8. The pen is mightier than the sword. 

9. H I can catch him once vpon the hip, I \vi\\ feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him. 

10. The destinies of mankind were trembling in the balance while death/eft in showers. 

11. O Cassius, you are yoked with a lamb that carries anger as a flint bears fire. 12. Na- 
tions shall beat their swords into j)loughsha?'es, and their spears into pruning-hooks. 
13. The Morn in russet mantle clad walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. 14. The 
air bites shrewdly. 15. He doth bestiide the narrow world like a Colossus. 16. My 
heart is in the coffin there with Ctesar. 17. The gray-eyed Morn smiles on the 
frowning Night. 18. The good is often buried with men's bones. 19. Beware of the 
bottle. 20. The Board of Trade met this morning. 21. I have no spur to prick (he 



Variety in Expression. 249 

sides of my intent. 22. I am as constant as the northern star. 23. Then burst his 
mighty heart. 24. Lentulus returned with victorious eagles. 25. Death hath sucked 
the honey of thy breath. 26. Our chains are forged. 27. I have bought golden opinions. 
28. His words fell softer than snows on the brine. 29. Night's candles are burnt out, 
and jocund Day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain top. 

Direction.— In the first four sentences, use similes • in the second four, meta- 
phors ; in the third four, synecdoches : in the last four, metonymies: — 

1. He flew with the swiftness of an arrow. 2. In battle some men are brave, others 
are cowardly. 3. His head is as full of plans as it can hold. 4. I heard a loud noise. 
5. Boston is fixe place xvhere American liberty began. 6. Our dispositions should grow 
mild, as we grow old. 7. The stars can no longer be seen. 8. In battle some men are brave, 
others are cowardly. 9. We passed a fleet of ten ships. 10. Ishmael has been against 
everybody, and everybody against him. 11. They sought the king's life. 12. 1 abjure all 
divellings. 13. His convivial habits have been his ruin. 14. Have you read Lamb's Es- 
says ? 15. The water is boiling. 16. We have prostrated ourselves before the king. 

Direction.— The parts of a figure should agree, and should unite to form one whole. 
Correct these errors : — 

1. The devouring fire uprooted the stubble. 2. The brittle thread of life may be cut 
asunder. 3. All the ripe fruit of three-score years was blighted in a day. 4. Unravel 
the obscurities of this knotty question. 5. We must apply the axe to the fountain of 
this evil. 6. The man stalks into court like a motionless statue, with the cloak of 
hypocrisy in his mouth. 7. The thin mantle of snow dissolved. 8. I smell a rat, I 
see him brewing in the air ; but I shall yet nip him in the bud. 



VARIETY IN EXPRESSION. 

Jtemarh.— You learned in Lessons 52-3-4, that the natural order may give way 
to the transposed : in 55-6, that one kind of simple sentence may be changed to 
another; in 57, that simple sentences may be contracted; in 61, that adjectives 
may be expanded to clauses ; in 67, that an adverb clause may stand before, between 
the parts of, and after, the independent clause ; in 68, that an adverb clause may be 
contracted to a participle, a participle phrase, an absolute phrase, a prepositional 
phrase, ma,y be contracted by the omission of words, and may be changed to an 
adjective clause or phrase ; in 73. that a noun clause as subject may stand last, and 
as object complement may stand first, that it nriy be made prominent, and may be 
contracted ; in 74, that direct quotations and questions may be changed to indirect, 
and indirect to direct ; in 77, that compound sentences may be formed out of simple 



250 Composition. 



sentences, may be contracted to simple sentences, and may be changed to complex 
sentences ; and, in 79, that participles, absolute phrases, and infinitives may be 
expanded into different kinds of clauses. 

Direction.— Take sentences and illustrate all these changes. t 

Direction.— Recast these sentences, avoiding offensive repetitions of the same word 
or the same sounds :— 

1. We have to have money to have a horse. 2. We sailed across a bay and sailed 
up a creek and sailed back and sailed in all about fourteen miles. 3. It is then put 
into stacks, or it is put into barns either to use it to feed it to the stock or to sell it. 
4. This day we undertake to render an account to the widows and orphans whom our 
decision will make ; to the wretches that will be roasted at the stake. 5. The news of 
the battle of Bunker Hill, fought on the 17th of June in the year of our Lord, 1775, 
roused the patriotism of the people to a high pitch of enthusiasm. 

Direction.— Using other words wholly or in part, see in how many ways you can 
express the thoughts contained in these sentences : — 

1. In the profusion and recklessness of her lies, Elizabeth had no peer in England. 
2. Henry IV. said that James I. was the wisest fool in Christendom. 3. Cowpcr's 
letters are charming because they are simple and natural. 4. George IV., though he 
was pronounced the first gentleman in Europe, was, nevertheless, a snob. 



LESSON 4§S. 

THE PARAGRAPH. 

The Paragraph. — The clauses of complex sentences are so closely united in mean- 
ing that frequently they are not to be separated from each other even by the comma. 
The clauses of compound sentences are less closely united — a comma, a semicolon, or 
a colon is needed to divide them. 

Between sentences there exists a wider separation in meaning, marked by a period or 
other terminal point. But even sentences may be connected— the bond which unites 
them being their common relation to the thought which jointly they develop. Sen- 
tences thus related are grouped together and form what we call a Paragraph, which is 
separated from other paragraphs by a break, or blank space, on the page, as here. 

Direction.— Notice the facts which this paragraph contains, and the relation to 
each other of the clauses and the sentences expressing these facts : — 
After a breeze of some sixty hours from the north and north-west, the wind died 



The Paragraph. 251 



away about four o'clock yesterday afternoon. The calm continued till about nine in 
the evening. The mercury in the barometer fell, in the meantime, at an extraordinar. 
rate ; and the captain predicted that we should encounter a gale from the south-east. 
The gale came on about eleven o'clock ; not violent at first, but increasing every 
moment. 

1. A breeze from the north and north-west. 2. The wind died away. 3. A calm. 4. Ba- 
rometer fell. 5. The captain predicted a gale. 6. It came on. 7. It increased in violence. 

Direction.— State and number the facts contained in the paragraph below : — 
I awoke with a confused recollection of a good deal of rolling and thumping in the 
night, occasioned by the dashing of the waves against the ship. Hurrying on my 
clothes, I found such of the passengers as could stand, at the doors of the hurricane- 
house, holding on, and looking out in the utmost consternation. It was still quite 
dark. Four of the sails were already in ribbons : the winds whistling through the 
cordage ; the rain dashing furiously and in torrents ; the noise and spray scarcely less 
than I found them under the great sheet at Niagara. 

Direction.— Weave these facts below into a paragraph, supplying all you need to 
make the narrative smooth :— 

Rip's beard was grizzled. Fowling-piece rusty. Dress uncouth. "Women and chil- 
dren at his heels. Attracted attention. Was eyed from head to foot. Was asked on 
which side he voted. Whether he was Federal or Democrat ? Rip was dazed by the 
question. Stared in stupidity. 

Direction.— Weave the facts below into two paragraphs, supplying what you need, 
and tell what each is abour : — 

In place of the old tree, there was a pole. This was tall and naked. A flag was 
fluttering from it. The flag had on it the stars and stripes. This was strange to Rip. 
But Rip saw something he remembered. The tavern sign. He recognized on it the 
face of King George. Still the picture was changed. The red coat gone. One of blue 
and buff in its place. A sword, and not a sceptre, in the hand. Wore a cocked hat. 
Underneath was painted— "General Washington." 



LESSON 4 IF. 

THE PARAGRAPH. 

Direction.— Weave the facts below into three paragraphs, and write on the margin 
what each is about : — 

The Nile rises in great lakes. Runs north. Sources two thousand miles from 
Alexandria. Receives two branches only. Runs through an alluvial valley. Course 
through the valley is 1,500 miles. Empties into the Mediterranean. Two principal 
channels. Minor outlets. Nile overflows its banks. Overflow cansed by rains at the 
sources. The melting of the mountain snows. Begins at the end of June. Rises 



252 Composition. 



your inches daily. Rises till the close of September. Subsides. Whole valley an in- 
land sea. Only villages above the surface. The valley very fertile. The deposit 
The fertile strip is from 5 to 150 miles wide. Renowned for fraitfnlness. Egypt 
long the granary of the world. Three crops from December to June. Productions- 
grain, cotton, and indigo. 

Direction.— Weave these facts into four paragraphs, writing on the margin of 
each the main thought :— 

The Robin is thought by some to be migratory. But he stays with us all winter. 
Cheerful. Noisy. Poor soloist. A spice of vulgarity in him. Dash of prose in his 
song. Appetite extraordinary. Eats his own weight in a short time. Taste for 
fruit. Eats with a relishing gulp, like Dr. Johnson's. Fond of cherries. Earliest 
mess of peas. Mulberries. Lion's share of the raspberries. Angle-worms hi- de- 
light. A few years ago I had a grape vine. A foreigner. Shy of bearing. This 
summer bore a score of bunches. They secreted sugar from the sunbeams. One 
morning, went to pick them. The robins beforehand with me. Bustled out from the 
leaves. Made shrill, unhandsome remarks about me. Had sacked the vine. Rem- 
nant of a single bunch. How it looked at the bottom of my basket ! A humming- 
bird's egg in an eagle's nest. Laughed. Robins joined in the merriment. 



LESSOU 3S8. 

PARAGRAPHS AND THE. THEME. 

Direction. —Weave these facts into four paragraphs:— 

Note that the several paragraphs form a composition, or theme, the general subject 
of which is 

Wouter Van Twiller (according to Diedrich Knickerbocker). 

I. Who he was.— Van Twiller was a Dutchman. Born at Rotterdam. Descended 
from burgomasters. In 1629 appointed governor of Nieuw Nederlandts. Arrived in 
June at New Amsterdam— New York city. 

II. Person.— Was five feet six inches high, six feet five in circumference. Head 
spherical, and too large for any neck. Nature set it on the back-bone. Body capa- 
cious. Legs short and sturdy. A beer-barrel on skids. Face a vast, nnfurrowed 
expanse. No lines of thought. Two small, gray eyes. Cheeks had taken toll of all 
that had entered his mouth. Mottled, and streaked with dusky red. 

III. Habits.— Regular. Four meals daily, each an hour long. Smoked and 
doubted eight hours. Slept twelve. As self-contained as an oyster. Rarely spoke 
save in monosyllables. But never said a foolish thing. Never laughed. Perplexed 
by a joke. Conceived everything on a grand scale. When a question was asked. 
would put on a mysterious look. Shake his head. Smoke in silence. Observe, at 
length, he had doubts. Presided at the council, instate. Swayed a Turkish pipe 
instead of a sceptre. Known to sit with eyes closed two hours. Internal commotion 
shown by guttural sounds. Noises of contending doubts, admirers said. 



Paragraphs and the Theme. 253 

IV. Exploits.— Settled a dispute about accounts thus : sent for the parties ; each 
produced his account-book ; Van T. weighed the books; counted the leaves ; equally- 
heavy ; equally thick ; made each give the otlier a receipt ; and the constable pay the 
costs. Demanded why Van Rensselaer seized Bear's Island. Battled with doubts 
regarding the Yankees. Smoked and breathed his last together. 

Direction.— Weave these facts into four paragraphs, write on the margin the 
special topic of each, and over all, what you think is the general subject of the 
Theme :— 

The prophets of Baal accept Elijah's challenge. They dress a bullock. Call on 
Baal. Are mocked by Elijah. Leap upon the altar. Cut themselves. Blood. Cry 
till the time of the evening sacrifice. No answer by fire. Elijah commands the 
people to come near. Repairs an old altar with twelve stones, one for each tribe. Digs 
a trench. Sacrifices. Pours water three times upon it. Prays. Fire falls, consumes 
flesh, wood, stones, dust, licks up water. People see it. Fall on their faces. Cry 
out twice, " The Lord, he is the God." Take the prophets to the brook Kishon, 
where they are slain. Elijah ascends Mount Carmel. Bows in prayer. "Go up now, 
look toward the sea." Servant reports, "There is nothing." "Go again seven 
times." "Behold there ariseth a little cloud out of the sea, like a man's hand." 
Orders Ahab to prepare his chariot. Girding up his loins, he runs before Ahab to 
Jezreel. 



PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. 

Direction.— Weave these facts into as many paragraphs as you think there should 
be, using the variety of expression insisted on in Lesson — , and write on the 
margin of each paragraph the special topic, and over all, the general subject of the 
Theme : — 

Fort Ticonderoga on a peninsula. Formed by the outlet of Lake George and* by 
Lake Champlain. Fronts south ; water on three sides. Separated by Lake Cham- 
plain from Mount Independence, and by the outlet from Mount Defiance. Fort one 
hundred feet above the water. May 7th, 1775, 270 men meet at Castleton, Vermont. 
All but 46, Green Mountain Boys. Meet to plan and execute an attack upon 
Fort T. Allen and Arnold there. Each claims the command. Question left to 
the officers. Allen chosen. On evening of the 9th, they reach the lake. Diffi- 
culty in crossing. Send for a scow. Seize a boat at anchor. Search, and find 
small row boats. Only 83 able to cross. Day is dawning when these reach the shore. 
Not prudent to wait. Allen orders all who will follow him to poise their firelocks. 
Every man responds. Nathan Beman, a lad, guides them to the fort. Sentinel snaps 
his gun at A. Misses fire. Sentinel retreats. They follow. Rush upon the 
parade ground. Form. Loud cheer. A. climbs the stairs. Orders La Place, it is 
said, in the name of the Continental Congress and the great Jehovah, to surrender. 
Captured 48 men. 120 cannon. Used next winter at the siege of Boston. Several 
swords and howitzers, small arms, and ammunition. 



254 Composition. 



Direction.— These facts are thrown together promiscuously. Classify them as 
they seem to you to be related. Determine the number of paragraphs and their order, 
and then do as directed above :— 

Joseph was Jacob's favorite. Wore fine garments. One day was Bent to inquire 
after the other sons. They were at a distance, tending the flocks. Joseph used to 
dream. They saw him coming. Plotted to kill him. In one dream hie brothers' 
sheaves bowed to his. In another the sun, moon, and stars, bowed to him. Plotted to 
throw his body into a pit. Agreed to report to las father that some beast had devoured 
him. Joseph fool ishly told these to his brothers. Hated him, because of the dreams 
and his father's partiality. While eating, Ishmaelites approached. They sat down to 
eat. Were going down into Egypt. Camels loadc.l with spices. At the intercession 
of Reuben they didn't kill Joseph. Threw him alive into a pit. Ishmaelites took him 
down into Egypt. Sold him to Potiphar. Judah advised that he be raised from the 
pit. Jacob recognized the coat. Refused comfort. Rent his clothes, and pat on sack- 
cloth. They took his coat. Killed a kid, and dipped the coat in its blood. Brought 
it to Jacob. " This have we found ; know now whether it be thy son's coat or no." 



PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. 

Direction.— Classify these promiscuous facts ; determine carefully the number 
and the order of the paragraphs ; and then do as directed above : — 

Trafalgar a Spanish promontory. Near the Straits of Gibraltar. Off Trafalgar, fleets 
of Spain and France, October 21, 1805. Nelson in command of the English fleet. The 
combined fleets in close line of battle. Collingwood second in command. Had more 
and larger cannon than the English. English fleet twenty-seven sail of the line and 
four frigates. Thirty-three sail of the line and seven frigates. He signalled those 
memorable words : " England expects every man to do his duty." Enemy four thou- 
sand troops. Signal received with a shout. They bore down. The best riflemen in 
the enemy's boats. C. steered for the centre. C. in the Jioyal Sovereign led the lee 
line of thirteen ships. A raking fire opened upon the Victory. N. in the Victory led 
the weather line. C. engaged the Santa Anna. Delighted at being the first in the 
fire. At 1.15, N. shot through the shoulder and back. At 12, the Victory opened fire. 
N.'s secretary the first to fall. Fifty fell before a shot was returned. '• They have 
done for me at last, Hardy," said N. They bore him below. At 2.25, ten of the enemy 
had struck. The wound was mortal. At 4 P. M., fifteen had struck. The victory that 
cost the British 1,587 men won. These were his last words. At 4.30, he expired. 
"How goes the day with us ?" he asked Hardy. "I hope none of our ships have 
struck." N.'s death was more than a public calamity. " I am a dead man. Hardy," 
he said. Englishmen turned pale at the news. Most triumphant death that of a 
martyr. He shook hands with Hardy. "Kiss me. Hardy." They mourned as for a 
dear friend. Kissed him on the cheek. Most awful death, that of the martyr patriot. 
The loss seemed a personal one. Knelt down again, and kissed his forehead. His 



Analysis of the Subject of the Theme. 255 

articulation difficult. Heard to say, " Thank God, I have done my duty." Seemed as 
if they had not known how deeply they loved him. Most splendid death that of the 
hero in the hour of victory. Has left a name which is our pride. An example which 
is our shield and strength. Buried him in St. Paul's. Thus the spirits of the great 
and the wise live after them. 

To the Teacher. — Continue this work as long as it is needed. Take any book and 
read to the class items of facts. Eequire them to use the imagination and weave these 
together, using all the graces of style. 



ANALYSIS OF THE SUBJECT OF THE THEME. 

Analysis of the Subject.— A Theme is made up of groups of sentences called 
Paragraphs. The sentences of each paragraph are related to each other, because they 
jointly develop a single point or thought. And the paragraphs are related to each 
other, because these points which they develop are divisions of the one general sub- 
ject of the Theme. 

After the subject has been chosen, and before writing upon it, it must be ana- 
lyzed into the main thoughts which compose it. Upon the thoroughness of this 
analysis and the natural arrangement of the thoughts thus derived, depends largely 
the worth of the Theme. These points form, when arranged, the Framework of 
the Theme. 

Suppose you had taken The Armada as your subject. Perhaps you could say 
under these heads all you wished : 1. What the Armada was. 2. Wien and by whom 
equipped. 3. Its purpose. 4. Its sail over the Bay of Biscay and entrance into the 
English Channel. 5. The attack iipon it by Admiral Howard and his great Captains 
—Brake and Hawkins. 6. Its dispersion and partial destruction by the storm. 
7. The return to Spain of the surviving ships and men. 8. Tlie consequences to Eng- 
land and to Spain. 

Perhaps the 1st point could include the 2d and the 3d. Be careful not to split your 
general subject up into too many parts. See, too, that no point is repeated, that no 
point foreign to the subject is introduced, and that all the points together exhaust the 
subject as nearly as may be. Look to the arrangement of the points. There is a 
natural order ; (6) could not precede (5) ; nor (5), (4) ; nor (4), (1). 

To the Teacher.— Question the pupils carefully upon every point taken up in 
th:s Lesson. 

Direction.— Prepare a framework of a theme on each of these subjects :— 

1. The Arrest of Major Andre. 2. A Winter in the Arctic Region. 



256 Composition. 



LESSON *S2, 



ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. 
Direction.— Prepare a framework of a theme on each of these subjectSi: — 
1. Battle of Plattsburg. 2. A Day's Nutting. 3. What does 
Proper Care for one's Health demand ? 



LISSOfi 463. 



ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. 
Direction.— Prepare a framework of a theme on each of these subjects :— 
1. A Visit to the Moon. 2. Reasons why one should not Smoke. 
3. What does a Proper Observance of Sunday require of one ? 



LESSON 464. 



ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. 
Direct i on.— Prepare a framework of a theme on each of these subjects : — 
1. The Gulf Stream. 2. A Descent into a Whirlpool. 3. What are 
Books good for? 



LESSON 165. 

HOW TO WRITE A THEME. 

I. Choose a Subject.— Choose your subject long before you are to write. 
Avoid a full, round term like Patriotism or Duty ; take a fragment of it ; as, Flow can 
a Boy be Patriotic? or Duties which %oe Schoolmates owe Each Other. The subject 
should be on your level, should be interesting to you and suggestive, and should 
instantly start in your mind many trains of thought. 

II. Accumulate the Material.— Begin to think about your subject. Turn it 
over in your mind in your leisure moments, and, as thoughts flash upon you, jot 
them down in your blank-book. Pay little regard to their order on the page or to 



How to Write a Theme. 257 

their relative importance ; but if any seem broad enough for the main points, or 
heads, indicate this. Talk with no one on the subject, and read nothing on it, till 
you have thought yourself empty ; and even then you should note down what the 
conversation or reading suggests, rather than what you hear or read. 

III. Construct a Framework.— Before writing, hunt through your material 
for the main points, or heads. See to what general truths or thoughts these jottings 
and those jottings point. Perhaps this or that thought, as it stands, includes enough 
to serve as a head. Be sure, at any rate, that by brooding over your material, and 
by further thinking upon the subject, you get at all the general thoughts into 
which, as it seems to you, the subject should be analyzed. Study these points 
carefully. See- that no two overlap each other, that no one appears twice, that no 
one has been raised to the dignity of a head that should stand under some head, 
and that no one is irrelevant. Study now to find the natural order in which these 
points should stand. Let no point, to the clear understanding of which some other 
point is necessary, precede that other. If developing all the points would make 
your Theme too long, study to see what points you can throw out with least break or 
incompleteness. 

XV. "Write.— Give your whole attention to your work as you write, and other 
thoughts will occur to you, and better ways of putting the thoughts already noted 
down. In expanding the main points into paragraphs, be sure that everything falls 
under its appropriate head. Cast out irrelevant matter. Do not strain after effect, 
or strive to seem wiser than you are. Use familiar words, and place these, your 
phrases, and your clauses, where they will make your thought the clearest. As occa- 
sion calls, change from the natural order to the transposed, and let sentences simple, 
complex, and compound, long and short, stand shoulder to shoulder in the paragraph. 
Express yourself easily— only now and then putting your thought forcibly and with 
feeling. Let a fresh image here and there relieve the uniformity of plain language. 
One sentence should follow another without abrupt break ; and if continuative of it, 
adversative to it, or an inference from it, and the hearer needs to be advised of this, 
let it swing into position on the hinge of a fitting connective. Of course your sen- 
tences must pass rigid muster in syntax ; and you must look sharply to the spelling, 
to the use of capital letters, and to punctuation. 

V. Attend to the Mechanical Execution.— Keep your pages clean, and 
let your handwriting be clear. On the left of the page leave a margin of an inch for 
corrections. Do not write on the fourth page ; if you exceed three pages, use 
another sheet and insert it. When the writing is done, double the lower half of the 
Bheet over the upper, and fold through the middle ; then bring the top down to the 



258 



Composition. 



middle and fold again. Bring the right end toward you and, across the top, write 
your name, the date, and the name of the teacher who is to correct the Theme. 
This superscription will be at the top of the fourth page, at the right-hand corner, and 
at right angles to the ruled lines. 

To the Teacher.— Question the pupils closely upon every point in this Lesson, 
and insist that they shall practice what is here laid down. 



Additional Subjects for Themes. 



1. 


Apples and Nuts. 


30. 


Robinson Crusoe. 


2. 


A Pleasant Evening. 


31. 


Street Arabs. 


3. 


My Walk to School. 


32. 


Legerdemain. 


4. 


Pluck. 


33. 


Our Neighborhood. 


5. 


School Friendships. 


34. 


Examinations. 


6. 


When my Ship comes in. 


35. 


Theatre-going. 


7. 


Ancient and Modern Warfare. 


36. 


Donkeys. 


8. 


The View from my Window. 


37. 


The Southern Negro. 


9. 


Homes without Hands. 


38. 


A Rainy Saturday. 


10. 


I can. 


39. 


The Early Bird catches the 


11. 


My Friend Jack- 




Worm. 


13. 


John Chinaman. 


40. 


Spring Sports. 


13. 


Irish Character. 


41. 


How Horatius kept the Bridge. 


14. 


Eobin Hood. 


42. 


Jack Frost. 


15. 


A Visit to Olympus. 


43. 


My First Sea Voyage. 


16. 


Monday Morning. 


44. 


Monkeys. 


17. 


My Native Town. 


45. 


Grandmothers. 


18. 


Over the Sea. 


46. 


The Boy of the Story Book. 


19. 


Up in a Balloon. 


47. 


Famous Streets. 


20. 


Queer People. 


48. 


Pigeons. 


21. 


Our Minister. 


49. 


Jack and Gill. 


22. 


A Plea for Puss. 


50. 


Make Haste Slowly. 


23. 


Castles in Spain. 


51. 


Commerce. 


24. 


Young America. 


52. 


The Ship of the Desert. 


25. 


Black Diamonds. 


53. 


Winter Sports. 


20. 


Mosquitoes. 


54. 


A Visit to Neptune. 


27. 


A Day in the Woods. 


55. 


Whiskers. 


28. 


A Boy's Trials. 


56. 


Gypsies. 


29. 


The Yankee. 


57. 


Cities of the Dead. 







Letter- WriU 


58. 


Street Cries. 




73. ] 


59. 


The World Owes me a Living. 


74. < 


60. 


Politeness. 




75. r 


61. 


Cleanliness akin to Godliness. 


76. j 


62. 


Fighting Windmills. 




77. '. 


63. 


Along the Docks. 




78. r 


64. 


Maple Sugar. 




79. 1 


65. 


Umbrellas. 




80. ^ 


66. 


A Girl's Trials. 




81. r 


67. 


A Spider's Web. 




82. r 


68. 


The Story of Ruth. 






69. 


Clouds. 




83. j 


70. 


A Country Store. 




84. j 


71. 


Timepieces. 




85. < 


72. 


Bulls and Bears. 




86. j 



259 

Bores. 

Our Sunday School. 

The Making of Beer. 

Autumn's Colors. 

The Watched Pot never Boils. 

The Mission of Birds. 

Parasites. 

Well Begun is Half Done. 

The Tides. 

The Schoolmaster in "The 

Deserted Village." 
A Day on a Trout Stream. 
A Stitch in Time saves Nine. 
Of What Use are Flowers ? 
A Descent in a Diving Bell. 



4ESS0N 166. 



LETTER-WRITING. 
* Tetters need special treatment. In writing a letter there are six things to con- 
sider—The Heading, The Introduction, The Body of the Letter, The Conclusion, The 
Folding, and The Superscription. 

The Heading. 

Parts.— The Heading consists of the name of the Place at which the letter is writ- 
ten, and the Date. If you write from a city, like St. Louis, Boston, or New York, give 
the door-number, the name of the street, and the name of the city ; if yon write from 
a small city, add the name of the state. If you are at a Hotel or a School or any 
other well-known Institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and 
the name of the street ; as may also the number of your post-office bos. If in a 
small country place, give your post-office address, the name of the county, and that 
of the state. 

The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year. 



* In preparing these Lessons on Letter- Writing 
authorities— Townsend and Westlake. 



, we have followed the two best 



260 Composition. 



How Written.— Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top of 
the page— on the first ruled line of commercial note. If the letter occupies hut a few 
lines of a single page, you may begin the Heading lower down. Begin the first line 
of the Heading a little to the left of the middle of the page. If it occupies more than 
one line, the second line should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third 
farther to the right than the second. 

The door-number, the day of the month, and the year are written in figures— the 
rest iu words. Each important word begins with a capital letter, each item is set off 
by the comma, and the whole closes with a period. 

Direct io n.— Study what has been said, and write the following headings accord- 
ing to these Models :— 

1. Ripton, Addison Co., Vt., 3. Saco, Me., Feb. 25, 1877. 

July 10, 1875. 4 Polytechnic Institute, 

2. 250 Broadway, N. Y., Brooklyn, N. Y., 

June 6, 1860. May 3, 1868. 

1. ann arbor 5 July 1820 michigan, 2. champlain co clinton n y jan 14 1800. 

3. p o box 2678 1860 oct 19 Chicago. 4. Philadelphia 670 1858 chestnut st 16 apr. 
5. saint nicholas new york 1 hotel nov 1855. 

The Introduction. 

Parts.— The Introduction consists of the Address— the Name, the Title, and 
the Place of Business or Residence of the one addressed— and the Salutation, or 
Cc mplimentary Address. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the Address. 
Prefix Mr. to a man's name, Mess?'S. to the names of several gentlemen ; Maker to 
that of a young lad ; Miss to that of a young lady ; Mrs. to that of a married lady ; 
3fis$es to those of several young ladies ; and Mesdames to those of several married or 
elderly ladies. Prefix Dr. to the name of a physician, but never Mr. Dr.; Iiev. to the 
name of a clergyman or Rev. Mr., if yon do not know his Christian name ; Rev. Dr., if 
he is a Doctor of Divinity, or write Rev. before the name and D.D. after it. Prefix 
His Excellency to the name of the President, and to that of a Governor or of an Em- 
bassador ; Hon. to the name of a Cabinet Officer, a Member of Congress, a State 
Senator, a Law Judge, or a Mayor. Give the title of her husband to a married lady ; 
as, Mrs. Dr. Smith, Mrs. Secretary Evarts, Mrs. Gen. W. T. Sherman. If two liter- 
ary or professional titles are added to a name, let them stand in the order in which 
they were conferred— this is the order of a few common ones '.—A.M., Ph.D., D.D., 
LL.D. Guard against an excessive use of titles— the higher implies the lower. 



Letter- Writing. 261 



Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's degree of 
intimacy with him. Strangers may he addressed as Sir, Rev. Sir, General, Madam, 
etc. ; acquaintances as Dear Sir, Dear Madam, etc. ; friends as My dear Sir, My 
dear Madam, My dear Jones, etc. ; and near relatives, and other dear friends as My 
dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen, etc. 

How "Written.— The Address may follow the Heading, beginning a line below 
it, and standing on the left side of the page ; or it maj r stand in corresponding posi- 
tion after the Body of the Letter and the Conclusion. If the letter is of an official 
character or is written 'to a very intimate friend, the Address may appropriately be 
placed at the bottom of the letter; but in all other letters, especially those on ordinary 
business, it should be placed at the top and as directed above. Never omit it from the 
letter except when the letter is written in the third person. There should always be a 
narrow margin on the left-hand side of the page, and the Address should always begin 
on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more than one line, the initial words of 
these lines should slope to the right, as in the Heading. 

Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it, when the 
Address occupies three lines ; on the marginal line or farther to the right than the sec- 
ond line of the Address, when this occupies two lines ; a little to the right of the 
marginal line, when the Address occupies one line ; on the marginal line, when the 
Address stands below. 

Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All the 
items of it should be set off by the comma, and, as it is an abbreviated sentence, it 
should close with a period. Every important word in the Salutation should begin 
with a capital letter, and the whole should be followed by a comma. 

Direction. — Study what has been said, and write the following introductions 
according to the models : — 

1. Prof. March, Eastern, Pa. 3. My dearest Mother, 

My dear Sir, When, etc. 

2. Messrs. Clark & Maynard, 4. Messrs. Vallette & Co., 

5 Barclay St., Middlebury, Vt. 

New York. Dear Sirs, 
Gentlemen, 

1. mr. george platt bnrlington iowa sir. 2. mass Cambridge prof james r lowell 
my dear friend. 3. messrs ivison blakeman ta}dor & co gentlemen new york. 4. rev 

brown dr the arlington Washington dear friend d c. 5. col John smith dear colonel 
n y auburn. 



262 Composition. 



3.E8SOH m. 

LETTER-WRITING— CONTINUED. 
Body op the Letter. 

The Beginning 1 .— Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the Salutation, and 
on the same line, if the Introduction is long— in which case the comma after the Salu- 
tation should be followed by a dash—; on the line below, if the Introduction is short. 

Style,— Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing. 
Spell correctly ; write legibly, neatly, and with care. Avoid blots, erasures, interlin- 
eations, cross lines, and all other offences against epistolary propriety. The letter 
" bespeaks the man. 1 ' Letters of friendship should be colloquial, chatty, and familiar. 
Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends, however trivial it 
may seem to a stranger. If addressing one of your family, write just as you feel, only 
feel right. 

Business letters should be brief, and the sentences should be short, concise, and 
to the point. Repeat nothing, and omit nothing which it is needful to say. 

Official letters and formal notes should be more stately and ceremonious. In formal 
notes the third person is generally used instead of the first ; there is no Heading, no 
Address, no Signature, only the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the page, thus :— 

Mr. & Mrs. A. request the pleasure of Mr. B's. company at a social gat hering, on 
Tuesday Evening next, at Eight o\lock. 

32 Fifth Ave., Nov. 5. 

Conclusion. 

Parts.— The Conclusion consists of the Complimentary Close, and the Sig- 
nature. The forms of the Complimentary Close arc many, and are determined by 
the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters ot friendship you may use 
Your sincere friend ; Yours affectionately ; Your loving so?i or daughter, etc. In busi- 
ness letters, you may use Yours ; Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully ; 
Very Respectfully Yours, etc. In official letters you should be more deferential. 
Use I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient servant; Very respectfully, your most 
obedient servant; etc., ete. 

Your Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In addressing 
a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady addressing a stranger should pre- 
fix her title— Miss or Mrs.— to her own name. 

How "Written.— The Complimentary Close should begin near the middle of the 
first line below the Body of the Letter, and, if occupying two or more lines, should 



Letter- Writing — Continued. 263 

elope to the right like the Heading and the Address. Begin each line of it with a 
capital letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following the whole with a period. 
The Signature should be very plain. 

Direction.— Write two formal notes— one inviting a friend to a social party, and 
one declining the invitation. 

Direction.— Write the Conclusion of a letter of friendship, of a letter of business, 
and of an official letter, carefully observing all that has been said above. 

Direct ion.— Write a letter of two or three lines to your father or your mother, and 
another to your minister, taking care to give properly the Heading in its two parts, 
the Introduction in its two parts, and the Conclusion in its two parts. Let the Address 
in the letter to your father or your mother stand at the bottom. 



LETTER-WRITING— CONTINUED. 
Folding. 

The Folding is a simple matter when, as now, the envelope used is adapted in 
length to the width of the sheet. Take the letter as it lies before you, with its first 
page uppermost, turn up the bottom of it about one-third the length of the sheet, 
bring the top down over this, taking care that the sides are even, and press the parts 
together. Taking the envelope with its back up and its open side toward you, insert 
the letter, putting in first the edge last folded. 

SUPETt SCRIPT/ION. 

Parts.— The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the envelope. It 
is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title, and the full Directions 
of the one addressed. 

How Written.— The Superscription should begin just below the middle of the 
envelope and near the left edge — the envelope lying with its closed side toward 
you— and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should slope to the right as 
in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between the lines should be the same, and 
the last line should end near the lower right-hand corner. On the first line the Name 
and the Title should stand. If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and 
name of the street should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and 
the name of the state, if needed, on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of 
the post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the third, and 



264 Composition. 



the name of the state on the fourth. The number of the post-office box may take the 
place of the door-number and the name of the street, or, to avoid crowding, it or the 
name of the county may stand at the lower left-hand corner. The titles following 
the name should be separated from it and from each other by the comma, and every 
line should end with a comma except the last, which should be followed by a period. 
The lines should be straight, and every part of the Superscription should be legible. 
Place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner. 

Direction.— Write six Superscriptions to real or imaginary friends or acquaint- 
ances in different cities, carefully observing all that has been said above. 

Direction.— Write two short letters — one to a friend at the Astor House, New 
York, and one to a stranger in the country. 

To the Teacher.— Continue this work until the pupils have mastered all the de- 
tails, and are able easily and quickly to write any ordinary letter. 



